
Ill 


ITT 




I 




1 








' 




































; 




; 














i ) 












■ 




' 
















^ 






■ 




> 






'. ■ 


' 




























i 








■ 


■ 


' ' 


. ^ Ld J 


mLi 




EDITOR 



iWM i JMWlWMIW W lllHllftWaW'l 







Class c>.-p/^0 
Book 






GopyiiglitN?. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



'Q:be IRural XText^Book Series 

Edited by L. PI. BAILEY 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



Ehe llXural KtxtMoo'k Scries 

Mann, Beginnings in Agriculture. 
Warren, Elements of Agriculture. 
Warren, Farm Management. 
Lyon and Fippin, Soil Management. 
J. F. DuGGAR, Southern Field Crops. 
B. M. DuGGAR, Plant Physiology. 
Harper, Animal Husbandry for Schools. 
Montgomery, Corn Crops. 
Wheeler, Manures and Fertilizers. 
Livingston, Field Crop Production. 
Widtsoe, Irrigation Practice. 
Piper, Forage Plants and their Culture. 
Others in preparation. 



FORAGE PLANTS AND 
THEIR CULTURE 



BY 






CHARLES V/ PIPER, M.S. 

AGROSTOLOGIST IN CHARGE OF FORAGE CROP INVESTIGATIONS 

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES 

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1914 

All rights reserved 



SB 1 33 
.P6'3 



Copyright, 1914, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1914. 



Norfajooti }3rtS8 

J. S. Cushini? Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



Al/G 27 1914 

©CI.A3S0120 



PREFACE 

The exceedingly diversified climatic conditions in North 
America have led to the cultivation of an unusually large 
number of plant species for forage production. Some of 
these are successful or important over but a comparatively 
small area, and not one is capable of profitable cultivation 
over the whole region. The climatic conditions of some 
parts of North America, especially the dry regions and the 
southernmost states, are not closely duplicated in any part 
of Europe. This fact has necessitated the introduction of 
numerous grasses and legumes from other regions to secure 
forage plants capable of profitable cultivation. The success 
of these endeavors has resulted in the utilization of many 
forage crops practically unknown in Europe, such as numer- 
ous varieties of sorghum, cowpeas, soybeans, Japan clover, 
Florida beggarweed, velvet bean, Bermuda-grass, Rhodes- 
grass, and many others. In some sections, there is still 
need of better adapted or more productive forage crops. 
Extensive experimental investigations have been conducted 
with only a few forage crops in America, so that there yet 
remains much to be learned concerning most of the others. 

The aim of the author has been to present as concisely 
as practicable the present state of our knowledge with ref- 
erence to each forage crop grown in America, and it is hoped 
that no important contributions to the subject have been 
omitted. 

The illustrations are mostly those which have been used 
in various publications of the United States Department of 



vi PREFACE 

Agriculture, the seed illustrations being reproductions of 
the unequalled drawings of Professor F. H. Hillman. 

The bringing together of the scattered results of Ameri- 
can research with some references to those of Europe will, 
it is hoped, reveal to students the phases of the subject 
which need further investigation. 

In preparing this volume the author wishes to acknowl- 
edge the aid he has received from his colleagues, E,. A. 
Oakley, J. M. Westgate, H. N. Vinall, W. J. Morse, M. W. 
Evans, H. L. Westover, and Katherine S. Bort. 



CHARLES V. PIPER. 



Washington, D.C, 
January, 1914. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter I. — Introduction ....... 1 

Definitions. — Knowledge of Forage Crops Compared with 
Other Crops. — Forage Crops and CiviUzation. — Forage 
Crops in Europe and America. — Perennial Hay Plants 
in Europe and America. — Botany of Forage Crops. — Ag- 
gressiveness Necessary in Perennial Forage Crops. — Char- 
acteristics of Grasses, — Legumes. — Root Nodules. — The 
Nodule Organism. — Forms of Root Nodules. — Natural 
Inoculation. — Artificial Inoculation. — Dependence of Leg- 
umes on Root Nodules. 

Chapter II. — Preservation of Forage. .... 21 

Preservation of Forage. — Time of Cutting. — Haymaking 
in Dry Weather. — Curing of Hay. — Haymaking under 
Humid Conditions. — Special Devices to Facilitate Hay 
Curing. — Completion of Curing. — Shrinkage of Stored 
Hay. — Loss of Hay or Fodder in the Field. — Relation of 
Green Weight to Dry Weight. — Loss of Substance from 
Growing Plants. — Hay Stacks. — Spontaneous Combustion. 
— Statistics of Hay Yields. — Brown Hay. — Silage. — The 
Nature of Silage Fermentation. — Advantages of Silage. — 
Crops Adapted to Ensiling. — Soiling or Soilage. — Soiling 
Systems. 

Chapter III. — Choice of Forage Crops . . . .47 

What Determines the Choice of a Forage Crop. — Special 
Purposes for which Forage Crops are Grown. — Adaptation 
to Conditions. — Yield. — Yields under Irrigation. — Cost of 
Seeding. — Time of Harvesting. — Ease of Harvesting and 
Curing. — Demands or Prejudices of the User, — Feeding 
Values. — I'eeding Experiments. — Chemical Analyses. — 
Chemical Composition as Affected by Soil Fertility and by 
Fertilizers. — Chemical Composition as Affected by Stage of 
Maturity. — Variation in Chemical Composition from Un- 
ascertained Causes. — Digestible Nutrients. — Net Energy 
Values. — Starch Values. — Comparison of Feeding Values. 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 

PA6B 

Chapter IV. — Seeds and Seeding ...... 67 

Quality. — Genuineness. — Purity. — Viability. — Actual 
Value of Seed. — Superiority of Local Seed. — Standards of 
Purity and Germination. — Adulteration and Misbranding. — 
Color and Plumpness of Seeds. — Age of Seeds. — Source of 
Seeds. — Seed Inspection. — Sampling. — Guaranteed Seeds. 

— Fungous Diseases. — Hard Seeds. — Most Dangerous 
Weed Seeds. — Weight of Seeds. — Number of Seeds in One 
Pound. — Seed Production of Forage Crops, United States, 
1909. — Seeding in Practice. — Rate of Seeding. — Time of 
Seeding. — Depth of Planting. — Experimental Results. — 
Nurse Crops. 

Chapter V. — Meadows and Pastures ..... 92 

Meadow Mixtures. — Composition of Meadow Mixtures. 

— Treatment of Hay Meadows. — Scarifying Old Meadows. 

— Reseeding Old Meadows. — Fertilizers for Hay Crops. — 
Top-dressing for Aftermath or Rowen. — Acreage of Im- 
proved Pasture in the United States. — Area of Wild Pasture 
in the United States. — Most Important Tame Pasture 
Plants. — Palatability of Pasture Grasses. — Pasture Yield 
as Determined by Number of Cuttings. — Pasture Mixtures. 

— Treatment of Permanent Pastures. — Pasturing Meadows. 

— Carrying Capacity. — Temporary Pastures. — Temporary 
Pasture Crop Systems for Hogs. — Bloating or Hoven. 

Chapter VI. — The Statistics of Forage Crops . . . 113 

Classification of Crops in Statistical Returns. — Forage 
Crops in General, United States, 1909. — Hay and Forage by 
Classes, United States, 1909. — Forage Statistics for Canada. 

Chapter VII. — Timothy 122 

Botany. — Agricultural History. — Agricultural Impor- 
tance. — Climatic Adaptations. — Soil Adaptation. — Ad- 
vantages of Timothy. — Rotations. — Seed. — Preparation 
of Seed Bed. — Heavy Seeds or Light Seeds. — Rate of 
Seeding. — Depth of Seeding. — Methods of Seeding. — 
Seed Bed. —Fertilizers for Timothy. — Lime. — Irrigation. 

— Time to Cut for Hay. — Yields. — Pasture. — Pollination. 



CONTENTS ix 

PAGE 

— Seed Production. — Life History. — Life Period. — Depth 
of Root System. — Proportion of Roots to Tops. — Regional 
Strains. — Feeding Value. — Injurious Insects. — Diseases. 
— Variability. — Disease Resistance. — Breeding. — Methods 
of Breeding. — Desirable Types of Improved Timothies. — 
Comparison of Vegetative and Seed Progeny. — Field Trials 
with Improved Strains. 

Chapter VIII. — Blue-grasses, Meadow-grasses and Red- 
top ........ 154 

Kentucky Blue-grass (Poa pratensis) : Botany ; Adapta- 
tions ; Importance ; Characteristics ; Culture ; Fertilizers ; 
Yields of Hay ; Seed Production ; Seed ; Hybrids. — Canada 
Blue-grass {Poa compressa) : Botany ; Seed ; Culture ; 
Adaptations; Importance. — Texas Blue-grass (Poa arach- 
nifera). — Fowl Meadow-grass {Poa triflora). — Rough- 
stalked Meadow-grass {Poa trivialis). — Wood Meadow-grass 
{Poa nemoralis) . — Redtop : Names; Botany; Agricultural 
History ; Adaptations ; Characteristics ; Importance ; Vari- 
ability ; Regional Strains ; Culture ; Yield of Hay ; Seed 
Production ; Seed. 

Chapter IX. — Orchard-grass, Tall Oat-grass and Brome- 

GRASSES ........ 176 

Orchard-grass : Description ; Botany ; Agricultural His- 
tory ; Climatic Adaptations ; Soil Preferences ; Adaptation 
to Shade ; Variability; Advantages and Disadvantages ; Im- 
portance ; Seeding of Orchard-grass ; Life History ; Har- 
vesting for Hay ; Yields of Hay ; Harvesting Orchard-grass 
for Seed ; Weeds ; Seed ; Sources of Seed ; Utilization of 
Stubble and Aftermath ; Mixtures ; Pasturage Value ; Feed 
Value ; Value as a Soil Binder ; Improvement by Selec- 
tion ; Pests. — Tall Oat-grass {Arrhenatherum elatius) : 
Names ; Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Im- 
portance ; Characteristics ; Seeding; Hay ; Seed Production ; 
Seed; Mixtures. — Brome-grass : Names and Description; 
Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Depth of 
Roots ; Method of Seeding ; Rate of Seeding Brome-grass ; 
Time to Cut for Hay ; Hay ; Fertilizers ; Treatment of 
Meadows ; Seed Production ; Seed ; Pasture Value ; Mix- 
tures ; Variability. 



X CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter X. — Other Grasses of Secondary Importance . 204 

Meadow Fescue (Festuca elatior) : Botany and History ; 
Characteristics ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Seeding ; Hay ; 
Seed Production ; Seed ; Pasture Value ; Pests ; Hybrids. — 
Tall Fescue. — Reed Fescue (Festuca arundinacea) . — Peren- 
nial or English Rye-grass (Lolium perenne) : Name; Ag- 
ricultural History ; Botany ; Characteristics ; Adaptation ; 
Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Culture ; Hay Yields ; 
Seed Production; Seed. — Italian Rye-grass : Character- 
istics ; Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Cul- 
ture ; Irrigation ; Hay Yields ; Seed Production ; Seed. — 
Slender Wheat-grass {Agropyron tenerum). — Western 
Wheat-grass {Agropyron occidentale) . 

Chapter XI, — Perennial Grasses of Minor Importance . 223 

Sheep's Fescue and Closely Related Species : Importance 
and Culture; Seed. — Red Fescue (Festuca rubra). — 
Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) : Characteristics ; 
Adaptations; Culture; Seed. — Sweet Vernal Grass (An- 
thoxanthiim odoratum) : Botany ; Culture. — Reed Canary- 
grass (Phalaris arundinacea) : Botany and Agricultural 
History; Characteristics; Culture. — Velvet-grass (Holcus 
lanatus). — Erect Brome (Bromus erectus). — Yellow Oat- 
grass (Trisetumjlavescens). — • Crested Dogstail (Cynosurus 
cristatus) . 

Chapter XII. — Southern Grasses 237 

Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dactylon) : Botany ; Character- 
istics ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Variability ; Im- 
portance ; Culture ; Yields of Hay ; Rootstocks ; Pasture 
Value; Feeding Value; Seed Production. — Johnson-grass 
(Andropogon halepensis) : Botany; Agricultural History; 
Adaptation and Utilization ; Poisonous Qualities ; Seed. — 
Japanese Sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum) : History and 
Characteristics ; Adaptations ; Planting ; Culture ; Utiliza- 
tion ; Yields ; Seed Cane. — Carpet-grass (Axonopus com- 
pressus). — Paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum). — Para-grass 
(Panicum harhinode). — Guinea-grass (Panicum maxi- 
mum). — Rescue-grass (Bromus unioloides). — Crab-grass 
(Digitaria sanguinalis). — Natal-grass (Tricholcena rosea). 



CONTENTS xi 



PAGE 

Chapter XIII. — Sorghums 260 

Sorghum (Anclropogon sorghum) : Botany ; Agricultural 
History ; Adaptations ; Root System ; Agricultural Groups ; 
Importance; Culture; Time of Sowing; Seeding in Rows; 
Seeding Broadcast ; Number of Cuttings ; Yields of For- 
age ; Seed ; Agricultural Varieties ; Seed-production ; Utili- 
zation ; Soilage ; Fodder ; Hay ; Silage ; Sorghum and 
Legume Mixtures ; Pasture Value ; Poisoning ; Diseases ; 
Insect Pests; Sorghum Improvement. — Sudan-grass (A7i- 
dropogon sorghum var.) : Description; Adaptations; Cul- 
ture ; Utilization ; Hay ; Hay Mixtures ; Chemical Analysis ; 
Seed-production. 

Chapter XIV. — Millets and Other Annual Grasses . 285 

The Principal Millets. — Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica) : 
Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Importance ; 
Agricultural Varieties ; Seeding; Hay; Feeding Value; Si- 
lage from Foxtail Millet ; Injurious Effects ; Seed-produc- 
tion ; Seed ; Diseases and Insects. — Japanese Barnyard 
Millet {Echinochloa frumentacea) . — Broom-corn Millet 
{Panicum miliaceum). — Comparative Hay Yields in Pounds 
to the Acre of Different Millets at Several Experiment Sta- 
tions. — Shama Millet {Echinochloa colona or Panicum colo- 
num). — Ragi, Finger-millet or Coracan (Eleusine coracana). 

— Texas Millet (Panicum texanum). — Cereals for Hay. — 
Chess or Cheat (Bromus secalinus). — Canary-grass (Pha- 
laris canariensis). — Penicillaria {Pennisetum glaucum). — 
Teosinte {Euchloena mexicana). 

Chapter XV. — Alfalfa ........ 305 

Agricultural History. — Origin of the Common Names. — 
Heat Relations. — Cold Relations. — Humidity Relations. — 
Soil Relations. — Distribution of the Alfalfa Crop. — Botan- 
ical Varieties of Alfalfa. — Cultivated Varieties of Alfalfa. — 
Importance of the Varieties. — Influence of Source of Seed. 

— Comparison of Regional Strains. — Important Character- 
istics of Alfalfa. — Life Period. — Roots. — Relations to Soil 
Moi.sture. — Seedlings. — Rootstocks. — Shoots. — Relative 
Proportion of Leaves, Stems and Roots. — Seed-bed. — In- 
oculation. — Rate of Seeding. — Time of Seeding. — Method 
of Seeding. — Nurse-crops. — Clipping. — Winter-killing. — 



xii CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Time to Cut for Hay. — Number of Cuttings. — Quality of 
Different Cuttings. — Irrigation. — Time to Apply Irrigating 
Water. — Winter Irrigation. — Kelation of Yield to Water 
Supply. — Care of an Alfalfa Field. — Alfalfa in Cultivated 
Rows. — Alfalfa in Mixtures. — Alfalfa in Rotations. — Pas- 
turing Alfalfa. — Use as a Soiling Crop. — Alfalfa Silage. — 
Alfalfa Meal. — Seed-production. — Pollination. — Seeds. — 
Viability of Seed. — Alfalfa Improvement. — Breeding 
Methods. — Weeds. — Dodder or Love-vine. — Diseases. — 
Insects. 

Chapter XVI. — Red Clover 361 

Botany of Red Clover. — Agricultural History. — Impor- 
tance and Distribution. — Soil Relations. — Climatic Rela- 
tions. — Effect of Shade. — Life Period. — Agricultural 
Varieties. — Comparison of Regional Strains. — Time of 
Seeding. — Rate of Seeding. — Seedlings. — Seeding with a 
Nurse-crop. — Seeding without a Nurse-crop. — Depth of 
Planting. — Winter-killing. — Treatment of Clover Fields. — 
Fertilizers. — Gypsum. — Lime. — Irrigation. — Red Clover 
in Mixtures. — Use in Rotations. — Effect of Clover in Rota- 
tions when Only the Stubble is Turned Under. — Volunteer 
Crops. — Stage to Cut. — Composition at Different Stages. — 
Number of Cuttings. — Yields of Hay. — Relation of Green 
Weight to Hay Weight. — Feeding Value. — Comparative 
Feeding Value of the First and Second Crops of Hay. — 
Soiling. — Pasturage. — Silage. — Number of Flowers and 
Seeds to the Head. — Pollination and Fecundation. — Seed- 
production. — Harvesting the Seed Crop.- — Yields of Seed. 
— Statistics of Seed Crop. — Value of the Straw. — Seed. — 
Color of Seeds. — Roots. — Shoots. — Proportion of Roots 
to Shoots. — Relative Proportions of Stems, Leaves and 
Flower Heads. — Diseases. — Clover Sickness. — Reduction 
of Acreage Probably Due Mainly to Clover Sickness. — In- 
sects. — Improvement of Red Clover by Breeding. — Disease- 
resistant Strains. 

Chapter XVII. — Other Clovers — Alsike, Hungarian, 

White and Sweet .... 405 

Alsike Clover ( Trifolium h7jhridum) : Botany of Alsike ; 
Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Characteristics of Al- 



CONTENTS xiii 



PAGE 



sike Clover ; Regional Strains ; Importance ; Culture ; Hay ; 
Seed Production ; Seed ; Value for Pasturage. — Hungarian 
Clover ( Trifolium pannonicum). — Wliite Clover ( Trifolium 
repens) : Botany ; Description ; Agricultural Histoiy ; Adap- 
tations ; Importance of White Clover ; Seeding ; Yields ; 
Pollination ; Seed-production ; Seed. — Ladino White Clover. 
— Sweet Clover (3IeJiIotus alba) : Botany and Description; 
Adaptations ; Agricultural History ; Seeding ; Securing a 
Stand ; Relative Proportions of Tops and Roots of Sweet 
Clover ; Utilization ; Advantages and Disadvantages ; Yield ; 
Seed-production ; Seed ; Related Species. 

Chapter XVIII. — Crimson Clover and Other Annuals . 426 

Crimson Clover ( Trifolium incarnatum) : Botany ; Agri- 
cultural History ; Description ; Adaptations ; Importance ; 
Variability and Agricultural Varieties ; Seeding ; Time of 
Sowing ; Methods of Sowing ; Time to Cut for Hay ; Yields ; 
Other Uses of Crimson Clover; Seed-production; Seed. — 
Shaftal or Persian Clover (Trifolium suaveolens). — Ber- 
seem {Trifolium alexandrinum). — Yellow Trefoil {Medi- 
cago lupulina). — Bur Clovers {Medicago spp.). — Dakota 
Vetch {Hosackia americana or Lotus americanus). 

Chapter XIX. — Peas and Pea-like Plants. . . . 441 

Pea (Fisum sativum) : Botany and History ; Description ; 
Adaptations ; Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Seeding ; 
Development of the Plant ; Hay ; Peas and Oats ; Pasture 
Value ; Garden Pea Vines ; Irrigation ; Seed-production ; 
Seed. — Pea Weevil (Laria pisorum or Bruchus pisorum). — 
Chick-pea ( Cicer arietinum) . — Grass-pea, Vetchling or 
Chickling Vetch (Lathyrus sativus). 

Chapter XX. — Vetches and Vetch-like Plants . . 456 

Kinds of Vetches. Common Vetch (Vicia sativa) : De- 
scription ; Botany and Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; 
Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Culture ; Time of Sow- 
ing ; Rate of Seeding ; Harvesting for Hay ; Pasturing 
Feeding Value ; Rotations ; Fertilizers ; Lime ; Silage 
Seed-production; Seed. — Hairy Vetch (Vicia villosa) 
Description ; Botany ; Climatic Adaptations ; Soil Prefer- 
ences ; Rate of Seeding • Time of Seeding ; Depth of Seeding ; 



xiv CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Inoculation ; Uses of the Crop ; Pollination ; Harvesting for 
Hay ; Feeding Value ; Use in Rotations ; Advantages and 
Disadvantages ; Growing Seed ; Sources^ of Seed ; Seeds. — 
Narrow-leaved Vetch (Vicia angustifolia). — Purple Vetch 
{Vicia atropurpurea) . — Woolly-pod Vetch (Vicia dasy- 
carpa). — Scarlet Vetch (Vicia fiilg ens) . — Ervil or Black 
Bitter Vetch (Vicia ervilia). — Narbonne Vetch (Vicia 
narhonnensis) . — Horse Bean ( Vicia faha). — Bird or Tufted 
Vetch (Vicia cracca). — Tangier Pea (Lathyrus tingitanus). 

— Flat-podded Vetchling (Lathyrus cicera). — Ochrus (La- 
thymis ochrus). — Comparison of Vetch Species. — Fenu- 
greek (Trigonella fmrnim-groicnm). — Lupines {Lupinus 
spp.). — Serradella (Ornithopus sativus). — Square-pod 
Pea (Lotus tetragonolohus). 

Chapter XXI. — Cowpeas 491 

Cowpea (Vigna sinensis) : Botanical Origin; Agricultural 
History ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Uses of the Crop ; Varie- 
tal Distinctions ; Life Period ; Pods and Seeds ; Correlations ; 
Important Varieties ; Rate and Method of Seeding ; Time of 
Seeding ; Inoculation ; Number of Cuttings ; Hay ; Hay 
Yields ; Feeding Value ; Cowpeas in Broadcast Mixtures ; 
Cowpea Mixtures not Broadcasted ; Growing Cowpeas for 
Seed; Pollination; Seed Yield; Proportion of Seed and 
Hulls ; Seeds ; Viability ; Root System ; Disease Resistance ; 
Insect Enemies. 

Chapter XXII. — Soybeans 513 

Agricultural History. — Botany. — Description. — Soil 
Adaptations. — Climatic Adaptations. — Importance. — De- 
sirable Characters in Soybean Varieties. — Commercial Va- 
rieties. — Preparation of Soil and Cultivation. — Rate of 
Seeding. — Time of Seeding. — Method of Seeding. — Depth 
of Planting. — Inoculation. — Life Period. — Time to Cut 
for Hay. — Hay Yields. — Fertilizers. — Soybean Mixtures. 

— Silage. — Rotations. — Feeding Value of Soybean Hay. — 
Seed-production. — Pollination. — Seed Yield. — Seeds. — 
Pests. — Breeding. — Soybeans and Cowpeas Compared. 

Chapter XXIII. — Other Hot-season Annual Legumes . 639 
Lespedeza or Japan Clover : Description ; Agricultural 
History ; Adaptations ; Culture ; Pasturage Value ; Hay ; 



CONTENTS XV 



Seed-production. — Florida Velvet Bean (Stizolobium deer- 
ingianuvi) : Description and History ; Utilization ; Other 
Species of Stizolobium. — Peanut {Arachis hypogcea). — 
Florida Beggarweed {Desmodium torUiosum or Ileibomia 
tortuosa). — The Jack Bean ( Canavalia eiisiformis) . — Mung 
Bean (Phaseolus aureus). — Urd (Phaseolus mungo). — 
Moth Bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius) . — Adzuki Bean {Pha- 
seolus angularis). — Bonavist or Hyacinth Bean {Dolichos 
lablab). — Guar {Gyamopsis tetragonoloba) . 

Chapter XXIV. — Miscellaneous Perennial Legumes . 559 

Sainfoin ( Onobrychis vicicefoUa) : Description ; Agricul- 
tural History ; Culture ; Seed ; American Data. — Sulla or 
Spanish Sainfoin (Hedysarum coronariuiii) . — Kudzu {Pue- 
raria thunbergiana). — Flat Pea (Lathyrus silvestris var. 
wagneri). — Kidney Vetch {Anthyllis vulneraria). — Goat's 
Rue (Galega officinalis). — Bird's-foot Trefoil (Lotus corni- 
culatus). — Astragalus falcatus. — Furze ( Ulex europceus). 

Chapter XXV. — Miscellaneous Herbs Used as Forage . 571 

Mexican Clover (Bichardsonia scabra). — Prickly Pear 
( Opuntia spp.). — Sunflower (Helianthus annuus). — Spurrey 
(Spergula sativa). — Yarrow (Achillea millefoli^im) . — 
^d,Qh?CimB(Polygon'umsarhalinense). — ^\\.rn&t (Sanguisorba 
minor). — Buckhorn (Plantago lanceolata). — Prickly Com- 
frey (Symphytum asperrimum). — Australian Saltbush 
(Atriplex semibaccata) . 

Chapter XXVI. — Root Crops and Other Comparable For- 
ages ........ 583 

Root Crops: Importance of Root Crops; Kinds of Root 
Crops ; Comparison of Various Root Crops ; Roots Compared 
with Corn and Sorghum. — ^^.?c\)e (Brassica 7iapiis): Impor- 
tance; Seeding; Place in Rotations; Sowing with Another 
Crop ; Utilization ; Carrying Capacity of Rape Pastures ; 
Yields; Insects. — Kale (Brassica oleracea) : Diseases; 
Yields of Kale, Cabbage and Other Brassicaceous Plants. — 
Jerusalem Artichoke (Heliaiithus tuberos7is). — Chufa (Cy- 
perus esculentus). — Cassava (Manihot utilissima). 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



1. Distribution of hay and forage in the United States . . 6 

2. Distribution of cattle in the United States — 1 dot equals 

1000 head. Compare distribution with that of forage 

in Fig. 1 8 

3. Ligule of a grass leaf 14 

4. Spikelet of orchard-grass 14 

5. A single floret of orchard-grass 14 

6. Noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds (No. 1) : a, Sand 

bur; b, wild oat; c, chess; d, darnel; e, quack-grass; 
f , dock ; g, black bindweed ; h, Russian thistle ; i, corn 
cockle ; j, white campion ; k, bladder campion ; 1, night- 
flowering catchfly ; m, cow cockle ; n, pennycress : o, 
field peppergrass ; p, large-fruited false flax ; q, small- 
fruited false flax ; r, ball mustard ; s, black mustard ; 
t, English charlock 77 

7. Noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds (No. 2) : a, Indian 

mustard; b, hare's ear mustard; c, tumbling mustard ; 
d, wild carrot; e, field bindweed; f, flax dodder; g, 
clover dodder ; h, small-seeded alfalfa dodder ; i, fleld 
dodder; j, large-seeded alfalfa dodder; k, corn grom- 
well ; 1, rat-tail plantain ; m, buckhorn ; n, ragweed ; 
0, gumweed; p, wild sunflower; q, oxeye-daisy ; r, Can- 
ada thistle ; s, bull thistle ; t, wild chicory ... 79 

8. Map showing percentage of cultivated land in forage crops 

1909-1910 » ^ 



9. Timothy (Phleum prateiise) : a, glumes ; b, floret with 
glumes removed 

10. Timothy. Florets showing the different parts 

11. Distribution of timothy 1909-1910. Figures equal acres 

12. Kentucky hlu.e-gra.ss( Poapratensis) : a, spikelet ; b, lemma 

showing attached tuft of hairs .... 

xvii 



116 

123 
123 
124 

155 



xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE PAGE 

13. A spikelet and florets of Kentucky blue-grass : a, spikelet as 

it appears at maturity ; b, the same, having the florets 
spread apart, showing jointed rachilla ; c, back view of 
a floret, showing the lemma (1) ; d, front view of the 
floret, showing the edges of the lemma (1), the palet (2), 
and the rachilla segment (3) ; e, the grain, or kernel . 166 

14. Mixture of seeds of Kentucky blue-grass (a) and Canada 

blue-grass (b). The Kentucky blue-grass seeds are 
broadest at the center, pointed, and have a distinct ridge 
on each side. Canada blue-grass seed are mostly broad- 
est near one end, blunt, and smooth on the sides . . 162 

15. Seeds of redtop representing the "fancy" grade of the 

trade : a, different views of seeds having the white, 
papery, inner chaff ; b, two views of a grain, or kernel, 
with the inner chaff removed ; c, the same nearly natu- 
ral size 174 

16. Chaff of redtop seed : a. Whole spikelets, usually devoid of 

seed in "chaffy" grades; b, separated scales of the 
same ; a and b represent the outer chaff of the seed. 
(Enlarged.) 175 

17. Orchard-grass (Dactylis glomerata) : a, spikelet; b, floret; 

c, stamens and pistil ; d, ligule ; e, section of node . 177 

18. Mixture of seeds of orchard-grass (a), meadow fescue grass 

(b) , and English rye-grass (c). The orchard-grass seeds 
are distinguished from the others by their slender, curved 
form. The meadow fescue and rye-grass seeds are dis- 
tinguished by the difference in the section of the seed- 
cluster axis (rachilla segment) which each bears. (En- 
larged. ) 185 

19. Tall oat-grass {Arrhenatherum elatius) : a, spikelet ; b, the 

two florets 189 

20. Brome-grass (Bromits inermis) : a, spikelet; b, floret, dor- 

sal view ; c, floret, vertical view ..... 196 

21. Me&dow fescue {Festuca el atior): a., spikelet . . . 205 

22. Italian rye-grass (Lolium multiflorum) : a, spikelet ; b, c, 

lemma ; d, e, seed 214 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix 

FIGITRE PAGE 

23. Slender wheat-grass {Agropyron tenenim) : a, glumes; 

b, spikelet with glumes removed 220 

24. Sheep's fescue {Festuca ovina) : a, glumes ; b, spikelet with 

glumes removed 224 

25. Crested dogstail {Cynosurus cristatus) : a, b, fertile spike- 

lets ; c, sterile spikelet 235 

26. Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dactylon) -. a, spikelet; b, floret . 238 

27. Paspalum dilatatum : a, showing arrangement of spikelets ; 

b, a single spikelet ; c and d, floret .... 252 

28. Eescue-grass {Bromus unioloides) : a, glumes ; b, lemma ; 

c, palea 257 

29. Foxtail millet {Setaria italica) : a and b, dorsal and ventral 

views of a spikelet ; c, lemma 287 

30. Texas millet (Panicum texanum) : a and b, dorsal and ven- 

tral views of a spikelet; c, lemma ..... 297 

31. Canary grass {Phalaris canariensis) 300 

32. Map of the United States, showing production of alfalfa hay 

by tons in 1909. Each dot equals 2000 tons . . .311 
83. Map of the United States and Canada, showing acreage of 

alfalfa. Figures equal acres 312 

34. An implement for harrowing fields of alfalfa . . .341 

35. A well-set cluster of alfalfa pods 347 

36. Alfalfa seeds : a, individual seeds, showing variation in 

form ; b, edge view of a seed, showing scar ; c, natural 
size of seeds 349 

37. Dodder or love-vine growing on alfalfa .... 355 

38. Adult form of the alfalfa weevil {Phytonomus posticus) : 

Adults clustering on and attacking a spray of alfalfa. 
(Slightly enlarged) 359 

39. Red clover 362 

40. Map showing acreage of red clover in the United States, 

1909, and Canada, 1910 363 

41. Stages in the development of red clover seed : a and c, flower 

in prime and ripe ; b and d, immature and mature seed 
vessel ; e, mature seed 388 



XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIOtTBE PAGE 

42. A bunching attachment or swather on an ordinary mower . 390 

43. Seeds of red clover : 1, side view and, 2, edge view of seeds ; 

3, the triangular form indicated; 4, a seed cut length- 
wise ; 5, a seed cut crosswise, showing the embryo ; a, 
a seed scar ; b, a stemlet (radicle) of the embryo ; c, seed 
leaves (cotyledons) of the embryo ; 6, a pod of red clo- 
ver ; 7, natural size of seeds 892 

44. Sketch showing the effect of the clover-seed chalcis fly : 

calyx (a), seed capsule (b), and seeds (c and d). At c 

the mature insect is shown in the act of emerging . . 402 

45. Alsike clover seeds : a, seeds showing variation in form and 

surface appearance, enlarged ; b, natural size of seeds . 409 

46. Sweet clover 417 

47. Seeds of sweet clover : a, seeds showing variation in form 

and size ; b, natural size of seeds ; c, a pod of sweet 
clover 424 

48. Crimson clover 426 

49. Seeds of crimson clover (enlarged and natural size) . . 434 

50. Seeds of yellow trefoil : a, seeds showing variation in form 

and size ; b, natural size of seeds ; c, oval form of tre- 
foil seeds indicated ; d, a pod of trefoil .... 436 

51. Field pea 442 

52. Seeds of common vetch (T7cm saliva). (Natural size) . 467 

53. Seed scar of common vetch. (Enlarged) .... 467 

54. Types of mottling of seeds of common vetch : a and b, from 

light and dark seeds, respectively. (Enlarged) . . 467 

55. Hairy vetch 468 

56. Seeds of hairy vetch ( Vicia villosa) . Natural size . . 476 

57. Seed scar of hairy vetch: a and b, forms showing the white, 

central slit of some scars. (Enlarged) .... 476 

. 483 

. 492 

. 512 

. 525 

. 585 



58. Tangier pea ...... 

59. Cowpea ...... 

60. Soybean 

61. Roots of soybean, showing nodules 

62. Root crops, 1909-1910. Figures equal acres 



LIST OF PLATES 

PLATE FACING PACK 

I. Panicles of Canada Blue-grass and Kentucky Blue-grass 164 *" 

II. A Field of Gooseneck Sorgo in Texas .... 2(J6 '^ 

III. Sudan-grass and Natural Hybrids ..... 280 ' 

IV. A Field of Sudan-grass in Virginia ..... 282 ^ 

j A Field of Sumac Sorgo in Texas 1 ^ 
\ A Field of Red Clover in Washington State j 

VI. Hairy Vetch and Rye 474 ' 

VII. Groit Cowpeas in a Broadcasted Field in Virginia . . 490 ^ 

VIII. Seeds of Soybeans, Cowpeas, Velvet-beans, Pods of ^^ 

Florida Velvet-bean and Yokohama Bean . . . 510 



/ 



XXI 



rOEAGE PLANTS AND THEIE CULTDEE 



CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

Domestic animals are an indispensable part of a good 
agriculture, even though they may have no place in the 
business of some of the high-class specialty farmers. To 
rear animals necessitates forage ; and the more important 
the animal production, the greater is the necessity that the 
forage be grown as a crop and be made a part of the farm 
scheme. The forage crops are now of many kinds, and 
they are taking their places in the regular farm-manage- 
ment plans of the forward farmer. These crops also have 
their own value as marketable products, constituting one 
of the important cash incomes of the farm. 

1. Definitions. — Forage includes any vegetable mat- 
ter, fresh or cured, eaten by herbivorous animals, such 
as grain, hay, pasturage, green feed, roots and silage. 
The iQvm. feed is synonymous with forage, although some- 
times restricted to grain. Fodder and stover are also 
identical in original meaning, but in the United States are 
used with special significations. 

Forage crops include only those plants grown primarily 
for feed and of which animals consume all or much of the 
vegetative parts ; that is, herbage, or roots. Most cereal 
crops are also grown for hay, pasturage or silage, and 
when thus grown may be considered forage crops. Sev- 
eral plants cultivated in other regions as cereals are in the 
United States grown mainly or wholly for forage. Among 



2 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

these are the grain sorghums, penicillaria, foxtail millet 
and proso or broom-corn millet. The distinction between 
cereals and forage crops in such cases is arbitrary. Such 
a plant is a cereal when grown primarily for the grain, 
and a forage when grown primarily for the herbage. 

Fodder (German f utter) really means the same as feed. 
In the United States the term is used mainly in reference 
to corn cut before the plant is fully mature, and from 
which the ears are not removed. The stems and leaves 
when dried and after the ears are removed is called stover. 
In the Southern States the term fodder is applied to the 
dried leaves and tops of the corn plant, removed while 
green, and before the ears are fully mature. 

The terms fodder and stover are also used in connec- 
tion with the sorghums and similar coarse grasses. 

Hay consists of the entire dried herbage of compara- 
tively fine-stemmed grasses or other forage plants. It is 
commonly dried or cured in the sun, but artificial drying 
apparatus has been used. The process of curing is not 
merely one of drying, as grass dried quickly with artificial 
heat is quite different from that cured with relative 
slowness. Under the latter conditions fermentative 
changes take place, due mainly to enzymes, which give 
freshly cured hay a characteristic aroma varying with the 
plant used. This odor is much less evident in plants 
quickly dried. 

Brown hay is prepared by stacking grass or clover when 
only half cured, on account of which it undergoes fer- 
mentation with heating. The product is brown and 
compact. Brown hay is commonly prepared in regions 
where on account of climatic conditions dry curing is 
difficult. It is somewhat intermediate between hay and 
silage in quality. 



INTRODUCTION 3 

Soiling is a term used to denote feeding with green 
plants, when the plants are cut and carried to the animals. 
Next to pasturing, this is the most primitive way of feed- 
ing animals. It is practically the only way that cut 
herbage is used in half-civilized countries. 

Silage is prepared by compacting green herbage in an 
air-tight receptacle in which it undergoes fermentation. 
In America the principal crop used for silage is corn, and 
this, after cutting in small pieces so that it will pack 
closely, is placed in a specially constructed silo to insure 
fermentation under nearly anaerobic conditions. The 
material is ensilaged in the silo. 

Straw is a term applied to the dried remnants of a crop 
from which the seed has been thrashed. The term is 
used most commonly in reference to the small grains, 
wheat, oats, rye and barley, but is properly applied also 
to thrashed flax, cowpeas, millets, etc. 

Root crops is applied to forage crops whose principal 
value lies in the subterranean portion, whether true roots 
or tubers. They are extensively grown for forage only in 
countries where they can be produced more cheaply than 
grain feeds. Their culture is therefore extensive in 
northern Europe, but has thus far received very little 
attention in America except in Canada, the Northeastern 
States and in the humid belt along the Pacific coast, all 
being regions not well adapted to the culture of corn. 
Root crops require a considerable amount of hand labor 
and, partly on this account and partly because of their 
greater cost, are not popular where plants like corn, sor- 
ghum or similar crops can be grown. 

Feeds are conveniently distinguished according to 
nutritive value into concentrates with high feeding value 
and roughage, or roughness, with relatively low feeding 



4 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

value. Concentrates include grains, or products thereof, oil 
meal, and for hogs tankage and similar products. Rough- 
age includes hay, fodder, straw, silage, roots, pasturage. 

Roughages have been considered to be made up of 
two or three general classes. Very commonly two such 
classes are recognized, one composed of the grass hays, 
roots, silage and stover, which are low in protein; the 
other composed of the legumes and also grass in the form 
of pasturage and rowen, which differ in having a higher 
protein content. 

Another classification recognizes three groups ; namely, 
1. legumes; 2. mixed legumes and grasses; 3. grasses 
(including corn). Perhaps a fourth group should be 
added; namely, the straws, which, however, are very 
variable in value. 

A rneadow on a farm is a field planted to grasses or 
legumes or both for hay. Commonly the term implies 
perennial meadows, but the phrase "annual meadows" 
is occasionally used. In northern regions the word 
meadow is also used for natural grass areas, especially if wet. 

The second growth of most grasses, especially those 
which bloom but once a season is called aftermath or rowen. 

Grass. — Besides its use in a purely botanical sense, 
the word grass is often used in agriculture to mean any 
plant growing for hay or pasture. The crop in a rotation 
is thus called grass even if it be clover or alfalfa. 

A pasture is a field in which animals graze on herba- 
ceous plants. Any crop thus utilized is spoken of as 
a pasture crop. Permanent pastures are such as can be 
grazed upon for several years and contain perennial plants 
or a succession of annuals, or both. 

Browsing is sometimes used as synonymous with graz- 
ing, but usually the word browse is restricted to shrubs 
of which animals eat the leaves or twigs. 



INTRODUCTION 5 

Wild pastures, whether wooded or prairie, are often 
called ranges or range lands, especially in the West. 

2. Knowledge of forage crops compared with other 
crops. — A critical survey of the present state of agro- 
nomic knowledge concerning forage crops as revealed both 
in literature and in practice makes clear the fact that 
there is not nearly as much accurate information about 
these crops as there is concerning others such as cereals, 
cotton, tobacco, etc. The reasons for this are not far to 
seek. First, forage crops are only rarely grown as money 
crops, and the farmer seldom knows with any degree of 
accuracy what yields he obtains. His forage crops are, 
therefore, not brought into yearly comparison with those 
of his neighbors, so that no definite criterion becomes 
established as to what are good and what poor yields. 
Consequently, there is lacking the spur for better effort 
brought about by the knowledge of the yields, and espe- 
cially the money returns secured by neighboring farmers. 
Second, there is a larger variety of plants grown for forage, 
no one of which is cultivated over so wide an area as any 
of the important cereal crops. There is, consequently, 
a smaller amount of information about each of the many 
.forage crops than there is concerning any one of the few 
cereal crops. 

The purely agronomic knowledge available, — that is, 
that relating to yield as affected by environmental, 
cultural or other factors, namely, climate, soil, fertilizers, 
culture, irrigation, variety, rate of seeding, rotation, — 
is partly the result of definite experiments, but largely 
the experience of farmers. Experimental results, where 
available, are more enlightening than those based on farm 
returns, but a vastly greater amount of experimental 
data is necessary for a better understanding of the com- 



6 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 




INTRODUCTION 7 

plex factors which affect yield. To the critical student, 
the relative paucity of accurate knowledge concerning 
yield relations will be apparent as the data concerning 
each crop is studied. 

3. Forage crops and civilization. — The culture of crops 
grown purely as feed for herbivorous animals is mainly 
a product of European civilization. Even yet such crops 
are seldom grown except in regions settled or governed 
by Europeans. Less civilized peoples have depended for 
the sustenance of their flocks wholly or mainly on natural 
pasturage ; or, where the population is dense, as in India 
and China, have utilized as forage only the refuse or 
surplus of crops grown for human food, supplemented by 
any pasturage available. To a slight extent, it is true, 
alfalfa was cultivated in ancient Persia, and perhaps red 
clover also, but this exception only emphasizes the fact 
that the culture of most forage crops originated and 
developed in Europe. 

In America the relative importance of forage to other 
staple crops has been still more developed. This is easily 
seen in a comparison of the forage crops with the total 
value of all field crops in India, Europe and America : — 



Table ghowing the Acreages of All Crops, of ForagS 
AND THE Number of Cattle and Horses in the United 
States, Canada, Europe and India. 



COUNTRY 


All, Crops 


Forage 


Cattle and 
Horses 


Year 


United States 
Canada 
Europe 
India . . . 


Acres 

301,325,598 

33,047,783 

792,644,963 

225,892,425 


Acres 

72,280,776 
9,156,573 

92,789,168 

4,881,742 


85,952,446 

9,353,000 

181,989,750 

103,677,987 


1909 
1911 
1906-11 
1910 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 




INTRODUCTION 9 

The actual value of the forage grown is, of course, far 
greater than the hay and forage of the census returns. 
To these figures need to be added the value of pasturage 
and of the straw of various crops. It is probable that each 
one of the 103,000,000 of cattle in India consumes about 
as much feed as does each of the 86,000,000 in the United 
States, but in India practically all of the forage is either 
straw or wild grass. While the growing of crops purely 
to feed animals is partly based on sentimental grounds, 
its justification lies in the fact that it is sound economy. 

4. Forage crops in Europe and in America. — In com- 
paring the forage crops grown in America and in Europe, 
it must be borne in mind that there are great differences 
in the climate and some in the soil which in large measure 
account for the relative importance of particular forage 
plants in the two continents. So far as climate is con- 
cerned, only California corresponds closely with the 
countries of southern Europe ; only the northwest Pacific 
coast region is at all comparable with England and northern 
Germany; and the eastern portion of the Great Plains 
is not very different from eastern Russia. On the other 
hand, the northeastern portion of the United States and 
adjacent Canada differs from any portion of Europe in 
having hot humid summers, and the winters too are colder 
than those of western Europe; the Southern States, 
especially the cotton region, are still more different in 
climate from any portion of Europe. 

Almost without exception the plants of southern Europe 
succeed well in California, those of middle western 
Europe on the north Pacific coast, and those of eastern 
Russia on the Great Plains. 

In marked contrast, but very few European forage 
plants are well adapted to the Southern States, the most 



10 FOBAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

important being primarily winter crops; namely, vetch, 
bur clover, white clover and redtop. 

Likewise, in the Northern States and Canada, many 
important European forages have found but little place, 
but four of them have on account of their marked adap- 
tation for the region attained relatively a much higher 
importance than they have in Europe. These four are 
timothy, red clover, Kentucky blue-grass and redtop. 
The utilization of these over much of the eastern United 
States to the practical exclusion of many of the other 
perennial grasses and legumes much used in Europe is 
striking. Over the area in question at least 50 per cent 
of the hay crop is made up of timothy and red clover 
alone, and probably 70 per cent of the improved pastures 
of Kentucky blue-grass and redtop. 

Some European plants, like sainfoin, are not grown in 
America because there are no chalk}^ soils; others, like 
the lupines and serradella, seem poorly adapted to with- 
stand summer heat; and many of the perennial grasses 
do not hold their own in pastures and meadows in com- 
petition with the more aggressive, better adapted species. 

5. Perennial hay plants in Europe and America com- 
pared. — In Europe eleven perennial grasses — namely, 
perennial rye-grass, Italian rye-grass, orchard-grass, 
meadow foxtail, meadow fescue, tall oat-grass, yellow 
oat-grass, velvet-grass, timothy, redtop and sweet vernal 
grass, — and five perennial legumes — namely, red, white 
and alsike clovers, alfalfa and sainfoin, — may be con- 
sidered as of prime importance. 

In North America, if we except alfalfa, these European 
grasses are well adapted only to the area north of latitude 
36°, after excluding much of the semi-arid region. South 
of this latitude few of them are worth cultivating. 



INTRODUCTION 11 

The general practice in Europe is to sow both meadows 
and pastures to complex mixtures of grasses. In marked 
contrast the American practice is to sow pure cultures or 
very simple mixtures. 

Of the above list only seven can be said to be much 
cultivated in America ; namely, timothy, redtop and 
orchard-grass, alfalfa, and red, white and alsike clovers. 
The remainder are relatively much neglected, though most 
of them have distinct value, at least in special areas. 
Neglect of their greater use is perhaps due to the ascen- 
dancy which timothy has in American favor and to an 
actual lack of knowledge concerning their merits. 

6. Botany of forage crops. — The greater numbers of 
forage crops are either grasses (Graminece) or legumes 
(Leguminosce) . There are definite reasons why this is 
the case. On prairie or meadow lands in all parts of the 
world, grasses make up a large percentage of the herbage. 
This is particularly true in areas where wild herbivorous 
animals existed in large numbers, as on our western 
prairies and in south Africa. The two facts are corre- 
lated. Without the grasses the abundant herds of animals 
could not have existed, and with the abundant herds few 
plants are so well adapted as the grasses to withstand 
heavy grazing and trampling. The reason for this lies 
in the fact that the growing part of a grass leaf is near its 
base and so is not injured when the upper part is bitten 
off, while with most other plants the growing point is 
terminal and therefore easily destroyed by grazing animals. 
Furthermore, many grasses are amply provided with 
vegetative means of spreading and reproducing, so that 
even if continuously cropped short, they nevertheless 
survive. The other plants most like the grasses — namely, 
the rushes and sedges — are, with a few exceptions, not 



12 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

much relished by animals, as their leaves are either very 
tough or very harsh. Among the characteristics a grass 
must have to be valuable under cultivation are satis- 
factory yielding capacity for the purpose employed, whether 
pasture, soiling, silage or hay ; good feeding quality, — ■ 
that is, palatable, not too woody, and without any in- 
jurious physiological effects ; good reproductive characters, 
such as abundant, easily gathered seed, or ready multi- 
plication by vegetative methods; and aggressiveness, or 
ability to maintain itself under the conditions of culture, 
and yet not be too troublesome as a weed. 

Many grasses otherwise satisfactory are but little used 
because the seed cannot be grown cheaply; others are 
distinctly unpalatable ; and most coarse perennial grasses 
will not endure either mowing or close grazing. 

Legumes are next in value to grasses, both as wild 
natural pasture plants and under cultivation. They are 
peculiar in having a higher content of protein than most 
other plants. About 100 species have been utilized more 
or less for forage. To be satisfactory for cultivation 
as forage crops, the same general characteristics are re- 
quired as for the grasses, but many legumes are poisonous 
or have other deleterious qualities. The seed habits, 
also, are frequently very unsatisfactory. 

Apart from the grasses and legumes a medley of other 
plants are more or less important as forage crops. Most 
prominent is the mustard family (Cruciferce), which in- 
cludes rutabagas, rape, kale and turnips. 

The other families of plants contribute very few and 
mostly unimportant crops. The mangel belongs to the 
Chenopodiaceoe ; the carrot and parsnip to the Umhelli- 
ferce; spurrey to the Caryophyllacece ; burnet to the 
Rosacece ; yarrow and artichokes to the Composites ; 



INTRODUCTION 13 

cassava to the Euphorbiacece ; Mexican clover to the 
Ruhiacece; and chufas to the Cyperacece. 

7. Aggressiveness necessary in perennial forage crops. 
— Aggressiveness, or ability to hold the soil against weeds 
and other competitors, is an exceedingly important char- 
acter in all perennial meadow or pasture crops, and often 
important in annuals. Plants of Old World origin are 
in this respect far superior to those of American origin, 
at least for cultivation in the New World. With but a 
single exception, every perennial hay plant cultivated in 
America is of Old World origin, and among perennial 
pasture plants there are but few exceptions. Many of 
the native American grasses are equal to Old World 
grasses in yield and nutritiousness, but with perhaps a 
few exceptions they lack in ability to retain possession 
of cultivated land against the competition of weeds. 
The reasons for this are not apparent, but the fact scarcely 
admits of doubt. Grasses are not alone peculiar in this 
respect, as most of our troublesome weeds are also of 
Old World origin. Some of these weedy grasses and other 
plants furnish good forage, and are therefore welcome. 
Among such are Japan clover, white clover, narrow- 
leaved vetch, bur clover, alfilaria, sweet clover, crab-grass, 
Bermuda-grass and blue-grass. A few temperate Ameri- 
can plants have shown similar aggressive propensities 
when transplanted to the Old World, such as water-weed, 
Elodea canadensis, and horse-weed, Erigeron canadensis. 
Many tropical American plants introduced into the Orient 
have prospered amazingly, where they behave as weeds, 
in a manner exactly analogous to European plants in- 
troduced into the United States. All this points to aggres- 
siveness as being in part at least a phenomenon of plants 
transferred to a new but similar environment. 



14 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



8. Characteristics of grasses. — Botanically the grasses 
form a sharply defined family characterized by having 
jointed, usually hollow, stems, with cross partitions at the 
nodes ; two-ranked, parallel-veined leaves, the basal 
portion or sheath inclosing the stem, and bearing where it 
joins the blade a peculiar appendage, the ligule (Fig. 3) ; 
flowers very small, mostly perfect, but sometimes uni- 
sexual, consisting of 3 stamens, rarely 1, 2 or 6 ; one 
pistil with two papillate or plumose stigmas ; and 2, 




Fig. 3. 
— Ligule 
of a grass 
leaf. 





Fig. 4. — Spikelet 
of orchard-grass. 



Fig. 5. — A sin- 
gle floret of orchard- 
grass. 



rarely 3, small perianth segments, the lodicules at the 
base of the ovary ; flowers always in spikelets, with 2- 
ranked bracts or scales, arranged on an axis, the rachilla. 
The two lower bracts are called glumes, and each suc- 
ceeding one is a lemma. Above and opposite the lemma 
is the 2-nerved palea, which incloses the floret. The 
florets are usually as numerous as the lemmas, but 
the upper ones are often sterile. 

The fruit is a caryopsis or grain, with small lateral 
embryo and relatively large starchy endosperm. For 
the most part grass flowers are wind pollinated, but some 
on which the stamens do not become exserted are self- 
pollinated, as in the case of wheat. 



INTRODUCTION 15 

Agricultural grasses are either annuals or perennials. 

The annuals are mostly grown as cereals in some part 
of the world at least, but several are grown in America 
primarily as forage, such as millets and sorghums. 

The perennials may be distinguished as bunch grasses, 
like orchard-grass and timothy, and creeping grasses, 
like Kentucky blue-grass and Bermuda. In the former 
the new shoots are intravaginal ; that is, the new shoots 
do not break through the lowest sheath but grow erect 
within it ; in the creeping grasses the shoots are extra- 
vaginal; that is, they pierce the lowest sheath and for 
a longer or shorter distance develop as rhizomes below 
ground, or stolons above ground. In a few grasses, like 
various-leaved fescue, both types of shoots are formed. 

The roots of all grasses are very slender and but little 
branched. Even in perennial grasses the roots usually 
live but one season and then new ones are formed. 

To possess high agricultural value, a grass must be 
palatable and healthful ; it must yield well ; and above 
all, it must have good seed habits, so that the seed can 
be harvested cheaply. Even in the best of the perennial 
grasses the seed is relatively inferior in viability, as com- 
pared with other crop plants. 

9. Legumes. — Legumes or pulses are distinguished 
botanically by having the leaves alternate, with stipules 
and mostly compound ; flowers usually papilionaceous — 
that is, like a pea flower ; pistil simple, becoming in fruit 
a legume ; embryo usually completely filling the seed. 

Biologically, most leguminous plants are remarkable 
for their ability to use free atmospheric nitrogen, by the 
aid of certain bacteria that form nodules on the roots. 

Most of the cultivated legumes thrive best in soil con- 
taining a high content of lime, but others, like trefoil and 



16 FORAGE PLA]^TS AND THEIR CZTLTURE 

white clover, are indifferent to lime. A few, like lupines 
and serradella, are injuriously affected if lime be added 
to the soil. Perennial legumes have as a rule stout roots 
which serve partly as storage organs for reserve food. 
Partly on this account, they are cut for hay in early bloom, 
as after this stage reserve stuff is deposited in the roots. 

10. Root nodules. — On the roots of most legumes and 
a few other plants occur nodules or tubercles. Woronin 
in 1866 discovered that these contained bacteria-like 
organisms, but their importance was not realized until 
Hellriegel in 1887 demonstrated that leguminous plants 
can utilize atmospheric nitrogen by the aid of these 
nodule bacteria. When the root nodules are absent, 
legumes, like most other plants, must depend on com- 
bined nitrogen in the soil. 

It was known to the Romans in Pliny's time that 
certain legumes helped succeeding crops, and indeed 
legumes mixed or in rotation with other crops have been 
used in India and China probably since prehistoric times. 
The importance of leguminous crops is, however, more 
clearly recognized since their role as nitrogen conservors 
has been discovered. 

11. The nodule organism. — The organism causing the 
nodules in legumes is now called Pseudomonas radicicola. 
Apparently it is but one and the same species that causes 
the nodules on legumes and on such, plants as Alnus, 
Shepherdia, Podocarpus, Ceanothus and others. The 
organism occurs in different physiological forms, for it is 
not possible, except in a few cases, to inoculate a legume 
of one genus directly with the nodule bacteria from another. 
The only definitely proved case of this is Melilotus and 
Medicago, alfalfa being readily inoculated by sweet clover. 
It is probable, also, that the bacteria of garden peas in- 



INTRODUCTION IT 

oculate vetch and vice versa, but this lacks proof, as does 
Nobbe's contention that Pisum will inoculate Phaseolus. 

12. Forms of root nodules. — The root nodules on 
different legumes vary greatly in size, shape and abun- 
dance. To a certain extent they are characteristic for 
each genus. The nodule is morphologically a modified 
rootlet. In many legumes it is always simple, but in 
others is more or less branched, sometimes into a coral- 
like mass. In the common cultivated clovers the nodules 
on the younger roots are small and globose, becoming 
club-shaped and often bilobed. On older roots they 
become more branched or lobed. 

Alfalfa produces nodules much like red clover, but 
usually longer and more branched. 

On Canada peas and the vetches the nodules are still 
more branched and fan-shaped in form. Clusters of 
these often form globose masses. 

In the cowpea, peanut and most beans, the nodules 
are irregularly globose and solid. These are frequently 
as large as a pea seed. On the soybean, the nodules are 
also globose but marked on the surface with raised ridges. 

The velvet bean produces perhaps the largest nodules 
of any legume. These are sometimes as large as a base- 
ball. Such are really clusters of branched nodules but 
packed together very densely. 

13. Natural inoculation. — Any legumes may easily 
be inoculated on new land by scattering soil from an old 
field where the same legume has previously produced 
nodules, as is nearly always the case when a legume crop 
is successful. This method was used in Europe before 
its significance was discovered. In thus inoculating new 
land, from 100 to 500 pounds of old soil should be used 
to the acre. It may be scattered in any convenient way, 



18 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

but preferably with a drill or on a cloudy day. Sunlight 
is destructive to the bacteria, so the inoculating soil 
should be harrowed in unless sown with a drill. 

The use of the naturally inoculated soil is open to ^the 
objection that it may serve to spread weeds, insects and 
plant diseases, especially if brought from a distance. 

In some cases, the nodule bacteria are undoubtedly 
carried on the surface of the seeds, especially where these 
are trampled out by animals. Thus plots of guar {Cya- 
niopsis tetragonoloba) , an East Indian legume, were well 
inoculated when grown for the first time at Chillicothe, 
Texas, although no closely related legume occurs in North 
America. In this case it seems practically certain that 
the bacteria were carried on the seeds. 

Inoculation of the soil for a new legume is sometimes 
secured by sowing a little of the seed in mixtures, as alfalfa 
with grass. Frequently some of the plants survive, and 
when this happens generally to scattered plants through- 
out a field, it is safe to conclude that the soil is sufficiently 
well inoculated. 

14. Artificial inoculation. — The first artificial cultures 
of Pseudomonas radicicola were made by Beyerinck in 
1888. In 1896 Nobbe introduced commercial cultures 
under the name of nitragin. Commercial cultures have 
been prepared in various forms ; namely, in liquids, upon 
agar jelly, in dry powders and on cotton. Moore in 1904 
prepared cultures grown on media poor in nitrogen under 
the idea that this would select the strains most efficient 
in fixing free nitrogen, and that these cultures would, 
therefore, prove beneficial even on soils already inoculated 
for any particular legume by providing a superior strain. 
Attempts have also been made to prepare cultures adapted 
to each soil by growing the bacteria in media prepared 



IN TR OB UCTION 1 9 

irom a solution of the particular soil to be inoculated. 
Whatever method is employed, it is necessary to prepare 
the cultures from nodules of the same species of plant for 
which the culture is intended. 

Beginning with the introduction of nitragin, many 
hundreds of inoculation experiments have been performed. 
There can be no question of the importance of nodules 
to the plants, as the difference between inoculated and 
uninoculated plants is often markedly apparent. Any 
superiority of artificial cultures over natural inoculation 
has thus far not been realized. Artificial inoculation for 
reasons not ascertained is less certain than natural soil 
inoculation. Artificial cultures have the advantage of 
cheapness and convenience, but thus far the uncertainty 
attending their use on uninoculated soil has more than 
counterbalanced these advantages. 

From theoretical considerations, there is abundant 
reason to believe that methods will yet be perfected to 
secure reliable inoculation by artificial cultures of espe- 
cially efficient strains of the nodule bacteria. 

15. Dependence of legumes on root nodules. — Many 
legumes will grow normally in a fertile soil without root 
nodules. In this case, however, the plant is less rich in 
nitrogen. Thus, Hopkins analyzed cowpeas grown at the 
Illinois Experiment Station, comparing plants with and 
without nodules. The former were three times as large 
and contained 3.9 per cent nitrogen and the latter but 2.2 
per cent. At Amarillo, Texas, in 1908, plots of cowpeas 
of several varieties planted in fertile virgin soil were 
entirely devoid of nodules, although their growth was ap- 
parently perfectly normal. 

On the other hand, alfalfa seems to be dependent under 
some conditions on root nodules for existence. In Mary- 



20 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

land and Virginia, numerous experimental fields of alfalfa 
planted in 1907 failed to survive where inoculation was 
not secured. This was the case even in well-fertilized soils. 
The plants grew to a height of about four inches and then 
gradually turned yellow and died. Under the conditions 
of these experiments alfalfa seems absolutely dependent 
on root nodules for successful growth. In contrast to this, 
alfalfa is said to have succeeded well in Kansas from its 
first introduction in that state, but no observations are 
recorded in regard to nodulation. 

According to Kirchner, no nodules had been observed 
on soybeans grown in Europe up to 1895, although this 
plant had been successfully cultivated since 1877. 



CHAPTER II 
PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 

The principles and methods of preserving forage are 
quite different from those employed with other crops. 
This is necessitated largely by the bulky nature of forage 
crops and the comparatively Ioav value of the product. 
One method of preservation — silage — is perfected to a 
degree which makes it comparable with a factory process. 
The making of hay, however, is still dependent almost 
wholly on favorable weather conditions, and in the ab- 
sence of this condition the crop is often lost or greatly 
damaged. 

16. Preservation of forage crops. — Herbage may be 
preserved as forage in one of three ways, hay, brown 
hay and silage. The form in which it is preserved depends 
partly on the particular crop, partly on climatic conditions 
and partly on the special purpose for which it is required. 
Grasses and legumes with fine stems are mostly harvested 
as hay. Under adverse climatic conditions, however, 
such crops are often saved as brown hay, but never if 
bright hay can be cured. Coarse fodders, like corn and 
sorghum, are more and more being preserved as silage, as 
this avoids both the difficulties of curing and the loss from 
leaching if left unprotected, and besides, furnishes a 
succulent feed. The finer grasses and legumes may also 
be preserved as silage, but this is seldom done, except when 
weather conditions prevent drying, and a silo is available. 

21 



22 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

17. Time of cutting. — There are five different criteria 
which may be considered in determining the stage at 
which to cut a crop of forage : — 

1. When the plants can be most satisfactorily cured 
either as hay or silage. 

2. When there is the least injury to the succeeding 
cutting. 

3. When the greatest total yield can be obtained. 

4. When the degree of digestibility is greatest, especially 
of the proteids. 

5. When the greatest total amount of digestible nu- 
trients is obtained. 

The first criterion is of importance only in regions where 
the climatic conditions can be predicted with some cer- 
tainty. For example, in most of the Southern States 
the weather in fall is quite likely to be more satisfactory 
for curing hay than is midsummer. On this account the 
cutting of some crops, like lespedeza and Bermuda grass, 
is commonly postponed till then, while others, as cowpeas, 
are planted so that they will mature at this time. 

The second consideration has some bearing on crops 
that yield two or more cuttings. As a rule, the later the 
first cutting is made, the smaller the second one will be. 

The third criterion would postpone the cutting of most 
grasses until the seed is mature, and most legumes until 
the leaves begin to fall off, as the total weight increases 
until maturity except as there is loss from defoliation or 
leaching. At this stage, however, most plants become 
more woody and less palatable. 

The fourth criterion is unimportant from the fact that in 
nearly all forage crops the digestibility is greatest when the 
plants are young, and cutting at this time is at the expense 
of a greatly reduced yield and greater difficulty in curing. 



PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 23 

The fifth criterion would apparently, from a theoretical 
consideration, be the most satisfactory basis to use. In 
grasses the percentage of digestibility varies but slightly 
from full bloom till when the seeds are nearly ripe, but in 
clovers it begins to fall off even before blooming. From 
this, it would appear that grasses may be cut at any time 
from full bloom until nearly ripe, excepting where the 
stems become decidedly woody ; while perennial legumes 
should be cut not later than full bloom. 

18. Haymaking in dry weather. — Under favorable 
climatic conditions, haymaking is a simple process. The 
curing will then often take place in the windrows into 
which it is raked when well wilted, so that it can be 
stacked or housed the day following without further 
handling, though it is usually desirable to turn the wind- 
rows an hour or more before loading. This method is 
often pursued in dry climates. The only objection to this 
system is that more bleaching from the sun takes place 
than if the hay is put into cocks or shocks as soon as dry 
enough. With such rapid curing, however, the bleaching 
is not sufficient to justify the additional labor required 
in cocking. Some loss, however, will result, especially 
in legumes, from the leaves becoming too dry and brittle 
so that they break off in subsequent handling. 

Even with perfect haying weather, the best hay is 
secured by raking into windrows as soon as well wilted, 
and afterwards piling into small cocks before any of the 
leaves become brittle. At this stage the leaves are drier 
than the stems, but in the cocks this is partly equalized 
by the leaves absorbing moisture from the stems. When 
thus cured, there is less bleaching from the sun, or sun 
and dew combined, few leaves are lost by becoming 
brittle and a higher degree of aroma is engendered. By 



24 FORAGE PLANTS AND THETR CULTURE 

thoroughly curing in the cocks, any danger of subsequent 
heating in the stack or mow is largely removed. Under 
the best conditions hay may be stacked or housed the same 
day that it is cut, but this is seldom done until the second 
or third day. 

19. Curing of hay. — In curing hay under ideal con- 
ditions, three different processes take place ; namely, 
(1) a reduction in water content from about 70 per cent 
(60 per cent to 85 per cent) in the green plant to about 
15 per cent (7 per cent to 25 per cent) when dried ; (2) en- 
zymatic changes in the composition of the hay, usually 
with the development of a characteristic aroma ; (3) bleach- 
ing, due to destruction of the chlorophyll by the sunlight 
which is increased by the action of the dew. 

The conditions sought in prime hay are bright color, that 
is, as green as possible ; good aroma ; retention of leaves 
(in legumes) ; and freedom from " dust " or mold spores. 

20. Haymaking under humid conditions. — While hay- 
making in favorable weather is simple, it becomes greatly 
complicated by cloudiness, rain and heavy dews. Rain 
is injurious both because it delays drying and because it 
leaches out soluble nutrients. If long continued, espe- 
cially in warm weather, it induces the growth of various 
molds and other fungi, and the hay becomes " dusty." 

Two processes to facilitate curing of hay under un- 
certain conditions are commonly employed. The first 
of these is designed to hasten drying by turning the grass 
over as soon as the top is dried, using pitchforks if done 
by hand, or a tedder if by horse power. Where the crop 
is very heavy, this is done while the hay is in the swath, 
but usually it is first raked into windrows. The second 
process is to pile into cocks after partially curing in wind- 
rows. The object here is mainly to reduce the surface 



PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 25 

exposed to moisture that may fall on the half-cured hay 
either as dew or rain. Where the drying is long pro- 
tracted, much additional labor is entailed by spreading 
fche cocks each favorable morning and recocking in the 
evening until cured. 

While the difficulty of thus curing grass hay is great, 
it is far less than in the case of legumes. Grasses have 
slender, usually hollow stems, and persistent leaves, while 
most legumes have solid stalks that are relatively thicker, 
and consequently dry much more slowly. Furthermore, 
the leaflets of legumes dry first and fall off easily when 
the hay is half cured, so that if much handled a large 
portion of the leaves may be lost. In addition, legume 
hays do not shed rain water as well as do grass hays, the 
latter indeed often being put on the top of shocks of legume 
hay to shed moisture. 

Cut hay should never be handled while wet. If the 
surface hay was best cured before the rain, as would be 
the case in the swath, it is in the most favorable position 
to dry promptly. If in the windrow, the stirring of the 
hay while the surface is wet brings this moisture in con- 
tact with the drier hay beneath, by which it is readily 
absorbed. 

Unfavorable weather greatly increases the cost of hay- 
making, both in requiring more labor and in causing 
greater loss of leaves from the more frequent handling 
necessitated. 

Continuous rains do but little more damage to freshly 
cut hay plants than to the uncut plants, at least during 
the first three or four days after cutting. Cured or 
partially cured hay, however, loses by leaching. Headden, 
at the Colorado Experiment Station, compared alfalfa 
hay exposed to warm humid weather for fifteen days, 



26 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

during which time 1.76 inches of rain fell in three showers, 
with a sample cut at the same time and immediately 
dried in an oven. The former contained but 11.01 per 
cent of protein against 18.71 per cent for the latter. 

Corn stover exposed two months to weather at the Wis- 
consin Experiment Station lost from 12.76 per cent to 
22.83 per cent of the total dry matter and 59.6 per cent 
to 71.55 per cent of the total protein. At the Colorado 
Experiment Station, corn stover spread on the ground 
in small shocks and in large shocks lost, respectively, 
55, 43 and 31 per cent of the dry matter. In these cases, 
however, the loss is partly due to fermentation and to 
molds. 

Westgate sprinkled perfectly cured crimson clover hay 
with water to imitate rain for one hour each on three 
successive days. On analysis it was found in com- 
parison with a sample unsprinklecl to have lost about 
three-fourths of its sugar, one-ninth of its protein and 
three-fourths of its ash constituents. 

Kellner in Germany analyzed two lots of alfalfa hay, 
one very carefully dried, the other exposed during drying 
to one heavy thunder storm and one light shower. The 
latter was poorer than the former in protein 2.1 per cent; 
in fiber, 2.2 per cent ; in carbohydrate, .4 per cent and in 
fat, .5 per cent. 

21. Special devices to facilitate hay curing. — Where 
weather injury is frequently experienced in curing hay, 
certain devices are often used that are helpful. 

Most common perhaps is the perch, which in its simplest 
form is a stake about six feet long with cross arms two 
to three feet long. This is driven into the ground and 
the green or half-dried plants are hung upon it so as to 
make a tall, slender cock. Perches are much used in 



PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 27 

curing peanut vines and are also very useful for cowpeas 
and similar viny plants. 

A less simple, but more effective device is the pyramid, 
which permits of making larger cocks with an open air 
space in the interior. Numerous forms of pyramids have 
been devised, even metal ones being used in Europe. 
They consist essentially of three or four legs jointed at 
the top and sometimes sharpened below so that they can 
be pushed firmly into the ground. Cross pieces joining 
the legs are also useful. The legs are commonly 6 to 8 
feet long. A form devised at the Tennessee Experiment 
Station is so joined at the top that the three legs come 
together when the pyramid is not in use. 

Still more elaborate frames are sometimes used for 
cowpeas, combining the characteristics of a pyramid and 
of a permanent^ stack. It is a common practice in stack- 
ing cowpea hay not completely cured to make alternate 
layers of hay and of wooden rails. The rails prevent the 
hay from matting and facilitate curing by permitting the 
circulation of the air. Such a stack is greatly improved 
by supporting the rails at each end, so that the air may 
more easily circulate between the layers of hay. 

Hay caps are also very desirable to protect cocks from 
rain. The form most commonly used consists of a piece 
of canvas about one yard square with a weight at each 
corner. By the use of a hay cap the hay cock is protected 
from the rain that falls directly upon it. 

If hay be stacked on low, wet ground, the bottom por- 
tion becomes ruined by the absorption of moisture. This 
may be prevented by building the stack on a raised stage. 
Where hay is annually cut on wet meadows which become 
overflowed, permanent hay stages built on a level above 
high water mark are often employed. 



28 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

In Europe, another method of curing hay which involves 
much hand labor is employed. This consists in tying 
the grass in sheaves after it has wilted one or two days. 
The sheaves are bound near the top so that when the 
cut ends are spread, they will stand alone. As these are 
often blown down by the wind, it involves an excessive 
amount of labor. Sometimes a number of sheaves are 
tied together so as to form a hollow cone, or many may 
thus be placed to form a rectangle with sloping sides and 
open ends. Such structures do not blow down so readily, 
but require much labor to set up. The sheaves are dried 
out principally by the circulation of the air. 

In semi-arid regions immature wheat, barley and other 
cereals are sometimes cut with a binder, and the bound 
sheaves cure readily without further handling. 

22. Completion of curing. — The stage at which curing 
is complete enough to make it safe to stack or house the 
hay is not easily determined. Where damage from 
weather is feared, it is important to get the crop in as soon 
as possible, especially in the case of legumes. A common 
rule is to consider legumes safe to put in large cocks or 
stacks when moisture can no longer be made to exude 
from the stems by twisting them tightly. When hay is 
stacked before thoroughly dry, it undergoes a process of 
heating or sweating. Legumes heat much more than 
grasses. Even when put in the mow at the stage indicated, 
alfalfa and crimson clover may become about as hot as 
the hand can bear. 

It is a common practice to sprinkle salt or lime over 
each layer of hay which is thought to be insufficiently 
cured. To what extent this may modify sweating and 
subsequent moldiness is not well ascertained. 

Hay is safe to place in the barn when the moisture 



PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 29 

content is reduced to 20 per cent. It is rarely practicable, 
however, to make moisture determinations. Among 
empirical rules used to determine when curing is so far 
completed to make housing safe are (1) when the hay 
breaks if a wisp is tightly twisted in the hand ; (2) when 
it is dry enough to rattle if gently shaken ; and (3) when 
it no longer feels cool if pressed to the cheek. 

23. Shrinkage of stored hay. — Hay when stored con- 
tains a varying amount of water, depending on the thor- 
oughness of the curing. Even in very dry climates it is 
seldom less than 10 per cent and in moist climates or under 
unfavorable conditions is commonly as high as 25 per 
cent. In the West hay is often stacked when the moisture 
content exceeds 25 per cent, and instances are reported 
where it contained as high as 38 per cent and yet kept well. 
The average moisture content of cured hay ranges from 
15 to 20 per cent. 

Shrinkage is mainly due to loss of water ; in rare cases 
where the hay is put in the mow when very dry, there may 
be gain in water content. Shrinkage due to loss of moisture 
varies according to the water content when stored and the 
humidity of the air. 

Besides the shrinkage due to evaporation of moisture, 
there is a varying amount of loss due to oxidation. Even 
in well cured hay the enzymatic changes which go on cause 
a small loss by oxidation. In poorly cured hay the loss 
may be much greater, not only from the high degree of 
heat engendered by the preliminary fermentation, but 
also by the growth of destructive molds and other 
organisms. 

The actual shrinkage which takes place in stored or 
stacked hay has been determined at several experiment 
stations. 



30 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



At the Rhode Island Experiment Station, hay removed 
from the barn in February, 1902, contained 12.21 per 
cent of moisture. The shrinkage of hay from three plots 
differently fertilized was determined as follows on this 
basis of water content : — 



Percentage loss during barn 
curing in 1901 .... 

Percentage loss during barn 
curing in 1902 .... 



Plot 17 

WITHOUT 

Nitrogen 



14.9 
13.3 



Plot 19 

Nitrate 
OP Soda, 

138 LB. 



15.7 

15.8 



Plot 21 

Nitrate 
OF Soda, 
414 lb. 



19.6 
16.0 



From these results it would appear that hay from land 
fertilized with nitrogen shrinks more than that from 
unfertilized. 

The Maine Experiment Station reports that two lots of 
timothy cut respectively July 9 and July 24 and put in 
a barn when dry, showed a shrinkage on November 24 
of 12.2 per cent for the early and 13.3 per cent for the 
later cutting. In another test the loss in storing field- 
cured hay for 10 months was 16.6 per cent in early-cut 
hay and 18.1 per cent in late-cut hay. 

The Pennsylvania Experiment Station reports that 
timothy hay cut in bloom showed an average shrinkage 
in weight in the barn after 5 or 6 months of 25.7 per cent, 
while hay cut two weeks later shrunk in weight on the 
average 18.8 per cent. Three mowings of red clover cut 
respectively when in bloom, '' some heads dead," and 
" heads all dead," showed a shrinkage after several months' 
storage in the barn of 42.4 per cent, 44.2 per cent and 
25.7 per cent in the order named. 



PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 



81 



The Michigan Experiment Station reports that timothy 
hay stored in a barn lost in one case 7 per cent in 6 months ; 
in three other cases the losses were respectively 13.8, 
15.0 and 21.7 per cent. Red clover hay lost 9 per cent 
by November in one case and 3.6 per cent in another ; 
the loss from July to February was 11.2 per cent. 

At the Utah Experiment Station one ton of timothy 
placed in the center of a mow July 15 contained 1790.8 
pounds dry matter, the moisture content being 10.46 
per cent. The following May it contained 1557.4 pounds 
of dry matter and 14.61 per cent moisture. The loss in 
dry matter was 14.9 per cent. 

Twenty-nine pounds of timothy hay suspended in a 
gunny bag for the same length of time increased in mois- 
ture content from 12.3 to 14.52 per cent. There was no loss 
in dry matter. 

At the Kansas Experiment Station moisture determina- 
tions were made for several kinds of hay when stored in 
Summer and again December 15. The results indicate 
that when curing is complete the moisture content of all 
hays is much the same under the same conditions : — 

Moisture Content of Hays at Kansas Experiment Station 



Kind of Hay 



Orchard-grass, blue-grass and 

clover 

Blue-grass 

Orchard-grass and clover . . 

Clover 

Prairie hay 

Millet 



Per Cent 
Moisture 

WHEN 

stored in 
Summer 



15.65 
19.59 
19.75 
9.08 
14.00 
21.86 



Per Cent 

Moisture 

December 

15 



10.54 

10.60 
11.80 
11.87 
10.61 

8.89 



Per Cent 

Loss OR Gain 

in Weight 



5.71 loss 
10.05 loss 
9.01 loss 
3.17 gain 
3.39 loss 
14.25 loss 



32 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



24. Loss of hay or fodder in the field. — Hay in stacks 
or fodder in shocks loses much more substance than when 
stored in barns. This is especially true in humid regions. 
The additional loss is largely due to leaching by rains, 
but the bleaching effect of sunlight and the larger loss 
by molds and other fungi is also important. 

Short at the Wisconsin Experiment Station compared 
the loss in corn fodder both when stored and when ex- 
posed to the weather. His results are shown in the fol- 
lowing table : — 







Fresh 


Weath- 
ered 


Loss 


Loss 


Sample I 


Weight 
Dry matter 
Protein 
Date . . 


lb. 

27.00 

7.84 
.603 
Sept. 21 


lb. 

11.25 
6.84 
22 
NoV. 14 


lb. 

18.75 
1.00 
.343 


per cent 


12.76 
59.56 


Sample II 


Weight 
Dry matter 
Protein 
Date 


28.50 

8.45 
.485 
Sept. 21 


10.25 
6.52 
.138 
Nov. 14 


18.25 
1.93 
.347 




22.83 
71.55 



25. Relation of green weight to dry weight. — There is 
no fixed ratio between the green weight and the dry 
weight of any plant. This varies, obviously, with the 
water content of the plant, which is never constant. It 
also varies with the conditions under which the plant was 
grown, a rapid succulent growth making a relatively 
smaller amount of dry matter than a slow retarded growth. 

For these reasons, as well as the variable amount of 
moisture in hay, there is a wide variation in the ratio 
of green weight and hay weight, not only for different hay 
plants but even in different cuttings from the same plot. 



PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 33 

The actual water content of a plant is easily determined 
by laboratory methods, care being taken to weigh the 
green plant under conditions that do not permit of loss 
by evaporation before weighing. The hay yield can be 
approximated from the water-free weight by arbitrarily 
adding 20 per cent. Such estimates are more nearly 
accurate than those obtained in the field by obtaining 
first the green weight and later the hay weight, as the 
moisture content of both vary greatly under field condi- 
tions. The discrepancies that thus occur in field weights, 
green and dry, are sometimes very large. 

The relation between dry weights and green weights of 
29 varieties of red clover grown at the Ontario Agri- 
cultural College, show an average ratio of 1 : 6. The widest 
ratio of any variety is 1 : 8.1 and the narrowest, 1 : 4.8. 

Jordan at the Maine Experiment Station found that 
timothy cut when the heads were beginning to appear 
lost, on an average, 75 per cent of water in curing into hay ; 
when beginning to bloom, the loss was 66 per cent ; when 
past bloom, 57 per cent. 

At the same station the green and air-dried yield of 
29 strains of clover in duplicate plots was weighed. The 
shrinkage in drying ranged from 68 per cent in one plot 
of Bohemian red clover to 82 per cent in a strain from 
Denmark. The average shrinkage was 73 to 75 per cent. 
Very leafy plants shrink more than those less leafy. 

The following relations appear between green weight 
and dry weight, in pounds per acre, of various crops 
grown at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station. As 
will be noticed, the water contents of the crops re- 
ported upon differ greatly. The low water content of 
spring vetch in contrast with that of sand vetch is es- 
pecially surprising : — 



34 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



Canada peas . 

Spring vetch . 
Sand vetch 
Red clover 

White clover . 

Alsike clover . 
Crimson clover 

Timothy . , 



Green 



20,142 

8,832 

6,756 

17,760 

20,250 

15,960 

12,492 

7,920 



Dry 



3,937 
5,934 
2,492 
4,808 
4,133 
3,956 
3,402 
3,344 



Ratio 



5 

1.5 

2.4 

3.7 

4.9 

5 

3.7 

2.4 



26. Loss of substance from growing plants. — Studies 
of the chemistry of plants at different stages have in many 
cases shown that the total amount of such substances as 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and soda was smaller 
at maturity than some time previously. The same fact 
has also been shown in field investigations where the total 
weight of hay produced per unit of area was less at ma- 
turity than at an earlier stage. 

Three general explanations of the phenomenon have 
been advanced, namely : — 

1. The backward flow of the salts of the plant through 
the stem and roots into the soil. 

2. The mechanical loss of material from the leaves by 
decay, drying, etc. 

3. The leaching effects of rain and dew. 

The subject has recently been studied by LeClerc 
and Brezeale. From their investigations it is demon- 
strated that all growing plants exude salts upon the sur- 
face of the leaves which are washed off by rains. No 
evidence was found that salts migrate downward, as the 
lower part of the stem is always poorer in phosphorus, 
potash and nitrogen than the upper part and leaves. 
Wheat plants were grown in the greenhouse and watered 



PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 



35 



only at the roots so as not to wet the foliage. Some of 
these plants blighted so that the whole plant slowly died, 
or else the tips of the leaves were killed. Analyses of 
the dead leaf tips showed that they were always poorer 
in nitrogen and ]3otash than the living basal portions. 
Other analyses of these dying plants showed that the lower 
nodes of the stem, whether dead or alive, were always poorer 
in nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash than the upper ones, 
which would not be the case if the movement were down- 
ward. From these observations, the conclusion is drawn 
that on ripening the salts held in the sap of the plants have 
a tendency to migrate from the dying to the living tissue ; 
and that the migration is upward and not downward. 

In another series of experiments, a whole barley plant 
at the heading stage was soaked in a dish of distilled water 
for several minutes and lost 1.6 per cent of its nitrogen 
content, 36 per cent of its phosphoric acid and 65 per 
cent of its potash. A pot of rice plants before the heads 
were mature was tilted over a dish and the tops sprayed 
with about 2^ quarts of water, imitating somewhat the 
action of rain. Analyses made both of the ash of the plant 
and of the leachings showed that the artificial rain had 
removed salts from the plant. 

Wheat plants in bloom and fully ripe were washed in 
distilled water five to ten minutes, and both the plants 
and the water analyzed. The percentage losses of mineral 
substances were as follows : — 





Nitro- 
gen 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 


Potash 


Soda 


Lime 


Mag- 
nesia 

10.3 
46.0 


Chlorin 


In bloom 
Fully ripe 


1.4 

7.0 



33.0 


4.4 
54.0 


12.7 
41.0 



34.0 


7.6 
60.0 



36 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Similar losses were also found when wheat plants 
grown in the greenhouse to ripeness were exposed to 
four rainfalls in such a way that the rain after falling on 
the plant was caught in a tray. Oat plants were also 
subjected to a test of this sort with comparable results. 

From these experiments the conclusion is drawn that 
plants exude salts upon their surfaces and the rain then 
washes these salts back to the soil. 

27. Hay stacks. — In the absence of barn room, hay 
is frequently stacked in the field, especially in dry regions. 
The shape of stacks varies greatly. If circular at base, 
they may be conical or thimble-shaped in form, not in- 
frequently being built so that they are largest above the 
middle, as this will shed water from the base. In the 
west, they are most commonly rectangular in outline, 
higher than broad, and with the top ridge-like or less 
commonly rounded. 

Well-built stacks are compact and the hay so laid that 
it sheds water both on the top and sides. This is difficult 
to accomplish with legume hays, so that stacks of these 
are frequently covered with grass hay or straw. 

To build a good stack requires both knowledge and 
experience. 

28. Spontaneous combustion. — Under certain con- 
ditions hay, especially of legumes, if put in a mow or stack 
while still moist, engenders great heat, and in some cases 
destructive fires have resulted. Several instances have 
been recorded where the center of a mow or stack has 
been found entirely charred when opened. Apparently the 
only reason that prevented ignition was the absence of air. 
There have, however, been a number of well-authenticated 
cases where barns have been burned by spontaneous com- 
bustion from alfalfa and from crimson clover hay. 



PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 37 

Conditions which cause spontaneous combustion are 
not sufficiently well known to warrant any definite state- 
ment as to just when hay is sufficiently cured to be safe. 
There is apparently always risk unless the hay is thor- 
oughly cured. 

The problem has been specifically studied by Hoffmann, 
in Germany, who experimented especially with red clover 
hay. He finds that the heat is generated through a 
process of fermentation, probably enzymatic, in which 
oxygen is taken from the air and the organic matter is 
transformed into carbon dioxide and water. From this 
additional moisture a secondary fermentation due to 
bacteria takes place. If the hay has external moisture 
when first stored, the fermentation is more rapid. The 
preliminary fermentation" causes a temperature of 56° C. 
This temperature causes a second and more violent oxi- 
dation to take place and the temperature rises to about 
90° C. In further fermentation processes the heat slowly 
rises to as high as 130° C, at which temperatures the hay 
is charred. From theoretical consideration Hoffmann 
figures that the temperature may rise to 190° C. In the 
presence of oxygen ignition will take place at 150° C. or 
higher. If, however, oxygen be excluded, ignition will not 
occur, but the hay will be converted into a mass of charcoal. 

29. Statistics of hay yields. — Yields of forage crops 
per acre are much less accurately known than those of 
grain crops. Reliable data of hay yields are available 
mainly in connection with definite experiments. Esti- 
mates of farmers upon which statistical and census 
data are based are probably too large. It is a difficult 
matter to estimate closely a yield of hay, and there is 
little chance to become proficient, as hay yields are so 
seldom weighed. On the other hand, the farmer sells his 



38 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

wheat, barley, or other small grain crop, and puts his corn 
into bins or cribs, so that he has every year an approxi- 
mately accurate measure to compare with his estimates. 

Another factor that leads to exaggeration is the large 
unit of measurement employed ; namely, the ton of 2000 
pounds. The smallest fraction ever used in estimates 
is ^ of a ton. 

The farmers' actual estimates are commonly based 
on the wagon load, usually considered as being one ton, 
but it is probable that the average wagon load is nearer 
three-fourths of a ton. 

Only where hay is baled can the yield figures be con- 
sidered reliable. Even in this case some allowance for 
moisture needs to be made. Well-cured timothy hay con- 
tains about 14 per cent of moisture, but as baled in the 
field, the water content is usually higher. 

Experiment station yields are usually higher than those 
obtained by farmers, as experimental plots are as a rule 
small, and secure better treatment than farmers' fields. 

30. Brown hay. — When climatic conditions interfere 
with the curing of bright hay, the crop may be preserved 
as brown hay. In this process the hay is cured largely 
by the aid of the heat engendered in fermentation. After 
cutting, the grass is made into cocks, trampling each layer 
to make it as dense as practicable. In these cocks, the 
heat engendered by fermentation may reach the boiling 
point of water. The second or third day after cocking, 
the piles are opened so as to permit the escape of the vapor, 
after which the product may be safely housed. 

A more common process is to dry the hay as much as 
possible in the air and then pile into compact stacks, where 
it is permitted to remain until fed. The final product varies 
in color from dark brown to nearly black. 



PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 39 

31. Silage. — Silage is made by the natural fermen- 
tation of green fodder in receptacles from which the 
access of air is excluded. In some form this process has 
been employed over a century. Originally pits in the 
earth either lined or unlined were used, and such are 
still employed, but in recent times specially constructed 
buildings called silos have become common. These may 
be built of wood, brick, tile, concrete, or steel. Most 
commonly they are cylindrical in form, and much taller 
than broad. (Silage is sometimes called ensilage; but this 
word is properly a verb meaning to place material in the 
silo, or to make silage, as to ensilage corn. The verb is 
sometimes shortened, in the vernacular, to ensile.) 

The proper fermentation requires only the exclusion of 
air, but practically this is best secured by close packing. 
Usually this is promoted by cutting the fodder fine and 
often by trampling and the use of weights. The cut 
fodder also has the advantage of being more easily re- 
moved from the silo when used. The volume decreases as 
fermentation proceeds, so provision must be made for even 
settling. 

The fermentation results in the formation of various 
acids and the loss of some substance as gas. While fer- 
menting, a considerable degree of heat is engendered. 
The fermentation is complete in from two to eight weeks, 
but corn silage is as a rule ready for use in four weeks. 
In contact with air silage decays, due to the attacks of 
fungi and aerobic bacteria. 

To provide the necessary conditions silos are con- 
structed with air-tight walls smooth on the inside, and 
the fodder is cut small so as to pack closely and settle 
evenly. In filling a silo, the top should not be left ex- 
posed more than a day or two, as decay then ensues. 



40 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

When filled, the top should be covered to exclude air. 
This was formerly done with a foot or so of earth, the 
weight of which assisted the settling. Usually, however, 
the top portion is allowed to decay, and it thus makes 
a nearly air-tight layer, but sometimes a layer of straw, 
chaff or green grass is used to exclude the air so as to 
preserve all the silage. 

This name " summer silage " has been given to silage 
prepared in late spring or early summer to feed after the 
corn silage of the previous season is exhausted. Among 
crops that have been thus used are rye, wheat, oats and 
red clover. The principal precaution to be taken is to 
have the silo small enough so that at least 4 inches is 
removed a day, as during hot weather silage spoils more 
quickly. It is claimed that the use of summer silage is 
far more economical than soiling and just as satisfactory, 
but few data have as yet been published. 

In using silage, the material is generally removed from 
the top. About 2 inches per day should be removed, 
as otherwise considerable loss occurs from mold. 

Silage is sometimes made simply by piling the green 
plants in large compact stacks. This method has been 
used with sorghum and is sometimes employed by can- 
neries to preserve green pea vines from which the peas 
have been separated. Such silage stacks are not economi- 
cal unless they are very large, as there is alwaj^s consider- 
able loss on the surface. 

32. The nature of silage fermentation. — The investi- 
gations at the Wisconsin Experiment Station by Babcock, 
Russell and King lead to the conclusion that the fermenta- 
tion of silage under proper conditions is not due to bacteria 
or other organisms, as has generally been held. Among 
the facts that are significant are the following : — 



PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 41 

1. Silage may reach its maximum temperature within 
twenty-four hours, a period much briefer than occurs 
with bacterial fermentation. 

2. When silage is fully cured, the further evolution of 
gas is small and mainly stationary. If now the silage 
be exposed to air, a new fermentation by bacteria and 
molds will ensue and cause a rise in temperature far 
above the previous anaerobic fermentation. 

3. Freshly cut corn in air-tight receptacles treated with 
chloroform, ether or benzol to suppress bacteria, never- 
theless ferments into silage, though with lower acid content. 

4. Freshly cut corn in air-tight receptacles filled with 
an inert gas like hydrogen or nitrogen, ferments into 
silage more slowly and the final product is more acid. 

5. Corn killed by frost will not produce silage, .but 
untreated, decays into an ill-smelling mass, due to bacteria. 
Treated with ether to destroy the bacteria, the frozen 
corn retains all the characteristics of green corn. 

6. The gas given off during silage fermentation is mainly 
carbon dioxide, but in the case of clover silage, also con- 
tains hydrogen. Nitrogen is apparently given off in 
small quantities in all silage fermentation. 

From the above facts, silage fermentation is ascribed 
to respiration of the green tissues — probably of an en- 
zymatic nature — and not at all due to bacteria or fungi. 
In silage exposed to the air fermentation b}^ the latter will 
occur, but it is always undesirable and destructive. 

33. Advantages of silage. — The preservation of 
forage as silage possesses a number of advantages, 
especially with coarse plants like corn and sorghum. 
Among these advantages are : — 

1. Silage preservation saves all of the forage in edible 
form. The loss both in preserving and feeding is very small. 



42 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

2. Silage is more palatable than dry fodder, and animals 
will eat a larger quantity. 

3. Silage preservation is not dependent on favorable 
weather conditions. 

4. Silage requires less space for storage than an equiva- 
lent amount of hay or fodder. 

5. When corn and especially grain sorghums are pre- 
served as silage, the seeds are softened so that they are 
thoroughly digested. 

While silage is undoubtedly the best way to preserve 
corn, sorghum and similar coarse plants, it has not 
proven very satisfactory with legumes or hay grasses, 
perhaps because proper methods of ensiling these plants 
have not been developed. Legumes mixed with corn or 
sorghum are very satisfactory, but when ensiled alone, 
the product seems frequently to be ill-smelling and un- 
palatable. A more satisfactory method of ensiling grasses 
and clovers is a desideratum for regions where hay curing 
is difficult. 

34. Crops adapted to ensiling. — Corn is the principal 
American crop preserved as silage, and constitutes 
probably more than 90 per cent of the total amount. 
The sorghums, both saccharine and non-saccharine, are 
also very satisfactory, and apparently not inferior to 
corn. Japanese sugar cane has given excellent results 
at the Florida Experiment Station. 

Meadow grasses and small grains are not much used 
for silage in America. They are, however, thus preserved 
in western Oregon and western Washington as well as in 
Europe. Georgeson reports the successful ensiling of 
beach lyme grass {Ehjmus mollis) at the Alaska Experi- 
ment Station. The silage kept well and made satis- 
factory feed for oxen. Millets have been preserved satis- 
factorily as silage at several experiment stations. 



PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 43 

Legumes alone have not proven altogether satisfactory 
as silage. Red clover in some experiments has yielded 
a palatable product, in others j-ank flavored and not 
relished by cattle. At the Colorado Experiment Station 
alfalfa yielded a silage that was readily eaten by dairy 
cattle. Cowpeas made good silage at the Georgia 
and Delaware Experiment Stations ; while both hairy 
vetch and soybeans produced well-flavored and aromatic 
silage at the Vermont Experiment Station. Soybeans 
alone made good silage at the New Jersey Experiment 
Station. Lloyd reports that in Ohio sweet clover has been 
used with good results. One reason for failures with 
ensilaged legumes is probably their higher water content, 
as pointed out by several investigators. On this account 
such crops should be allowed to become as mature as 
practicable before ensiling. 

Mixtures of corn and legumes such as cowpeas or soy- 
beans make excellent silage. In Ontario sunflower heads 
are often mixed in corn silage. The Vermont Experi- 
ment Station tested the Robertson silage mixture ; namely, 
corn, horse beans and sunflower heads, but the cows did 
not eat it quite as readily as pure corn silage. 

Peas and oats and vetch and oats both proved very 
satisfactory at the Vermont Experiment Station. 

Sugar beet pulp, a refuse from beet sugar factories, 
also makes a palatable silage. 

35. Soiling or soilage. — Soiling is stall feeding with 
green fodder. This method of feeding is far more common 
in Europe than in America. It obviates the necessity 
of curing much of the forage, and the loss that accompanies 
the process. For dairy cows, at least, it gives better 
returns than the feeding of an equivalent amount of dry 
hay. On the other hand, it has certain disadvantages, 



44 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

particularly the cutting and hauling of small areas of green 
feed every day, regardless of weather conditions, — in this 
way not being economical in the use of labor and machinery. 

Soiling is well adapted mainly to the feeding of dairy 
cows, and is practically the only way to utilize certain 
crops, such as thousand-headed kale and spineless cactus. 
For short periods of time — especially in the absence or 
scarcity of other feed — soiling is often utilized by dairy- 
men. 

In the tropics, soiling is the common method of feeding 
roughage, not only to cattle, but to city horses. This is 
especially the case where labor is cheap, and humid con- 
ditions prevent the curing of hay. Grasses of various 
kinds are cut green, tied into bundles and thus marketed 
fresh each da3^ Among the grasses thus commonly used 
for horses are Guinea-grass, Para-grass, and Bermuda-grass. 
In the Philippine Islands, Bareet grass {Homalocenchrus 
hexandriis) is extensively cultivated about the towns for 
this purpose. 

Soiling such crops as millet, kale, sorghum, etc., is 
usually preferable to pasturing, at least for cattle. The 
latter method occasions much loss by trampling, and 
expense for temporary or permanent fences. On the 
other hand, soiling involves the expense of cutting and 
hauling green feed daily, and the planning of a succession 
of crops so that each will be ready when needed in ample 
quantity. On these accounts soiling is seldom used in 
America except to tide over a temporary shortage of feed. 
Instead of soiling, the practice is growing of feeding silage 
the whole year, thus securing a succulent feed and avoid- 
ing the difficulties involved in soiling. 

36. Soiling systems. — A succession of crops to provide 
green feed for a season or for a portion of a season is called 



PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 



45 



a soiling system. To plan such a succession of crops 
requires accurate knowledge of the time required for each 
crop to reach its growth, the length of time it may be fed 
and also the average yield to be expected, so that the 
proper area to be planted can be accurately determined. 

Annuals are more convenient to use in soiling systems 
than perennials because plantings of the same crop can 
be made at successive dates, and its feeding period thus 
extended over several weeks' time. Furthermore, the land 
becomes at once available for other plantings. While 
perennials are often utilized in soiling systems, such are 
seldom planted for this purpose alone, as it is rarely econ- 
omy to plant them in an area as small as would be required. 

Soiling systems for the whole growing season have been 
devised at several experiment stations, a few examples 
of which are here given : — ■ 

Soiling System recommended by Phelps for Connecticut 



Crop 



Rye .... 

Wheat . . . 
Red clover . 
Grass 

Oats and peas . 
Oats and peas . 
Oats and peas . 
Clover rowen 
Hungarian millet 
Cowpeas 
Grass rowen 
Barley and peas 



Time op Seeding 



Sept. 1 
Sept. 5-10 
July 20-30 

April 10 
April 20 
April 30 

June 10 
June 5-10 



Au£ 



5-10 



Time of Feeding 



May 10 
May 20- 
June 5- 
June 15- 
June 25- 
July 10- 
July 20- 
Aug. 1- 
Aug. 10- 
Sept. 5- 
Sept. 20- 
Oct. 1- 



-20 

•June 5 

15 

25 

July 10 

20 

Aug. 1 

10 

20 

20 

30 

30 



At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station the following 
data were secured on the date of planting and yields of 
various soiling crops : — 



46 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 





Date of 


Date of 




Yield per Acre 






Air- 


Crop 


Sowing 


Harvesting 




Green 
sub- 


dried 










stance 


sub- 
stance 


Flat peas 




June 17- June 


28 


10,004 


1861 


Peas and oats 


May 5 


June 29-July 


11 


27,671 


3929 


Peas and oats 


May 16 


July 12-July 


22 


18,137 


2938 


Peas and oats 


May 21 


July 22-July 


25 


22,773 


3120 


Peas and barley 


May 21 


July 26-Aug. 


2 


19,415 


3436 


Flat peas 




Aug. 3-Aug. 


12 


11,782 


2344 


Clover silage 












Cowpeas and 












milo maize 


June 11-29 


Aug. 29-Sept. 


6 


18,083 


3707 


Black cowpeas 


June 25 


Sept. 7-Sept. 


22 


18,251 


3705 


Red Ripper cow- 












peas 


June 25 


Sept. 22-Sept. 


25 


11,117 


2590 



The flat peas are, however, not recommended on account 
of difficulty of establishing the crop, unpalat ability and 
possible danger of tainting the milk. Rape, too, is not 
recommended because not very palatable and likely to 
taint the milk. 

On the basis of these and other data the station suggests 
the following soiling system : — 

Soiling System for Ten Cows 
Based on Data obtained at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station 



Crop 



Rye 

Alfalfa 

Clover and timothy .... 

Peas and oats 

Alfalfa (2d crop) 

Sorghum and cowpeas (after rye) 
Cowpeas (after peas and oats) 



Area 


When to be Fed 


1 acre 


May 15-June 1 


2 acres 


June 1-June 12 


f acre 


June 12- June 24 


1 acre 


June 24- July 15 


2 acres 


July 15-Aug. 11 


^ acre 


Aug. 11-Aug. 28 


1 acre 


Aug. 28-Sept. 30 



CHAPTER III 
CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 

The number of species of plants which the domesticated 
animals or their wild ancestors devour for food is very 
large. While comparatively few of these meet the needs 
of profitable agriculture, yet over 100 species are more or 
less utilized, while many others have been tested in an ex- 
perimental way. There is thus presented to the agricul- 
turist the problem of determining which of many possible 
forage plants is the most satisfactory to grow under given 
conditions. 

37. What determines the choice of a forage crop. — 
The extent to which a forage crop is grown in any par- 
ticular region or for any particular purpose is correlated 
with a number of considerations. Among these the follow- 
ing are important : — 

1. Purpose for which grown; namely, hay, fodder, 
silage or soiling. 

2. Adaptation to the conditions of climate, soil and 
culture in rotations. 

3. Yield. 

4. Cost of seeding per acre. 

5. Ease of harvesting and curing. 

6. Time of harvesting. 

7. Feeding value. 

8. Demands or prejudices of the user. 

47 



48 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

If the forage is grown to sell, the last consideration is 
often the controlling factor. It is usually easy to deter- 
mine the characteristics of several forage crops as regards 
each point compared. It is sometimes, however, difficult 
to ascertain why, on the whole, one crop is preferred to 
another closely comparable. 

38. Special purposes for which forage crops are grown. 
— Forage crops may thus be classified, as regards the 
purposes for which they are grown : — 

1. Long-lived meadows, for hay; such as timothy, 
alfalfa, brome-grass, redtop, etc. 

2. Annual hay crops ; such as crimson clover, millet, 
cowpeas, rye, etc., often sown as " catch " crops. 

3. Coarse grasses for silage or fodder; such as corn, 
sorghum, pearl millet and Japanese sugar-cane. 

4. Permanent pastures, for which are used Kentucky 
blue-grass, white clover, Bermuda-grass and various more 
or less complex mixtures. 

5. Temporary pastures, using such plants as rye, 
wheat, crimson clover, cowpeas, Italian rye-grass and 
others. 

6. Soiling crops, often planted in succession so as to give 
green feeds during definite periods. 

It is obvious that most forage crops utilized for one 
of the above purposes are usually not well fitted for other 
purposes. 

39. Adaptation to conditions. — Different forage crops 
are adapted to widely different conditions of climate, 
and this factor usually closely limits the area in which 
each can be profitably grown. Sometimes market con- 
siderations lead to the growing of a crop under conditions 
which are not very favorable, as timothy in the South 
and alfalfa on unsuitable soil types in the East. While 



CHOICE OF FOB AGE CROPS 49 

alfalfa and red clover both do well in some places, the 
latter is much better fitted for use in short rotations. 

40. Yields per acre. — The yielding capacities of various 
hay grasses and other closely comparable forage crops 
have been tested at various experiment stations. In 
comparatively few places, however, have such experi- 
ments been adequate to reach clear conclusions. Some 
of the experiment station results are shown in the accom- 
panying table. Usually yield per acre is the most im- 
portant single characteristic upon which the popularity 
of a good forage crop depends. In some areas, and under 
certain conditions, a particular forage crop will so far out- 
yield all others that there is practically no choice. Thus 
alfalfa is by far the heaviest yielding hay crop for the 
irrigated lands of the West, and sorghum usually gives far 
larger returns than any other comparable crop on much 
of the dry land area. 

European yields that are commonly quoted are often 
based on very small plots, necessitating multiplication by 
a large factor to secure the acre yield. Thus the English 
yields reported by Sinclair were usually based on weighing 
the grass and hay from an area two feet square ; and 
those of Vianne in France on areas little if any larger. 

Some yields reported by American experiment sta- 
tions are also based on very small plots. While these 
as a rule give results that can hardly be secured on larger 
plantings, yet they do give comparable values. In the 
accompanying table, the hay grasses are arranged in the 
approximate order of their importance. It will be noticed 
that this order is in many cases not consistent with their 
yielding capacities. It is questionable, however, if the 
results at any one experiment station are sufficiently ex- 
haustive to admit of a definite conclusion : — 



50 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



w 

Cm 
X 

w 

en 

O 

t— I 

> 

H 
<J 

CO 

O 

w 

1-3 
Q 

CO 

-<cc 

^^ 
Co 

&^ 

Sh 

o 

w 
Qi 
o 
< 

Pi 

CO 

Q 
;?; 

o 

p-( 

I— I 

>^ 

<i 

w 

[in 
O 

CO 

Q 
hJ 

W 



•Av avaA Z 

NOIXVXg 

XNaiviHadxa Hvxj^ 


2349 
1585 
1786 

3690 
2245 




1 

b- O 

00 o 
t^ -* 

O IN 

T-l 




o 

01 ^ 


North Da- 
kota 
Dickinson 


1856. 3 yr. 
2149. 3 yr. 


1-^ 
>> 

CO 

CO 






2211. 2yr. 
1780. 


ava^ I Noix 
-vxg XNaKiaadxg 

VNnOHVQ HXaO|^J 


CO O ■* Tl< 05 t^ 
CO -t< lO O (M lO 
ri 05 lO O (M "O 
<M iM ^ (M CO »0 




05 

CO 

T-l 

U5 




to 

CO 
Oi 
CO 


ava^ I 
NOIXVXg XNawiaad 
-xg viNVAaASNNaj; 


CO 
CO 








00 CO CO <N (N •<*< t^ 

O lO CO O 03 CO CO 

00 o --1 -^ '^ 03 o 

■* CO ■* CO IM lO CO 


•AV HvaA I 

ONixxnQ X 

aoa^^o^ avanx 

-anoiaoy oiavxNQ 


o o o o o o o 

f 00 O (M O CO CM 
03 >0 .-H lO lO ■^ CO 
CO CO lO »0 (M rf< Tfi 


3160 

8720 


O 

o 

1— ( 
CO 






ava^ I 

NOIXVXg XNaiV 

-laadxa vaasNiNa^j 
aaddOQ 'NvoiHOip\[ 


CO CO o o o >o 

CO 05 CO 00 (N 05 
^ 'f O CO 1-- C>J 
CO CO (M "O CO rt< 


O O O CO 

CO 'ti -^^ o 

(M TjH -* t^ 

CO 'O lO CO 


CO 

o 




CO o 
-f o 

—1 GO 
lO CO 


xoaj y 25 ivavj 
NOXONiaay 'viNioaiy^ 


o o o o o o o 

O O 00 (M O O 00 
CO iM 00 t^ CO IM O 

CO CO (M CO cj CO CO 


Illinois 
Experi- 
ment Sta- 
tion 


4400. 2 yr. 
3600. 1 yr. 
2800. 2 yr. 
5480. 1 yr. 

3775. 1 yr. 
3135. 1 yr. 










Kansas 
Experi- 
ment Sta- 
tion 
\ A. Plots 


5528. 4 yr. 
3399. 2yr. 
2809. 4yr. 
2453. 4 yr. 
1050. 2 yr. 
2341. 2yr. 
2155. 4 yr. 

3008. 4 yr. 


1830. 2 yr. 
2378. 1 yr. 

1782. 2 yr. 


id 
CO 


c 

>> 

d 

lO 


>> >> 

d d 
00 .-1 

1^ CO 


Ohio Ex- 
periment 
Station 
^0 A. Plots 


COCOCOCOO»-ICOCO»-I 


1-1 1-1 








■^Tt<Tti-*'^0000 
OJCOOiOl^iNOt^O 
OicOCO-^cDi-iiMOOO: 

COlOTt<Tj<C0lOTfTtl(M 


o ^ 

CO t^ 

t^ CO 


Crop 


1 




Kentucky blue-grass 
Western wheat-grass 
Slender wheat-grass 
Erect brome 








Timothy . . . 
Redtop . . . 
Orchard-grass . . 
Tall oat-grass . . 
Perennial rye-grass 
Italian rye-grass . 
Meadow fescue . 
Tall fescue 
Brome .... 




u 

4) 
> 

_o 
"o 
Xi 

o 

a 
a 

03 


Red clover . . 
Alsike .... 
White clover . . 
Crimson clover 
Hairy vetch 
Common vetch 
Canada peas . . 


Meadow foxtail 
Johnson-grass 
Alfalfa . . . 
Sanfoin 



CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 



51 



Eh 



O 

w 

Em 
O 

O 

H 



d 



^ -C 






■<1 

< 


Yield per 
Inch of 
Water 


1-1 




00 CO LO -^ lO 

GO O LO l> 05 

a> o ^ CO CM 




r— 1 

CM 






"^2 


h-i 


TjH o r^ ^ o 

GO ^ Ci O '^ 
00 O O CO 00 
O^ l^ C5 05 00 




CO 

T— 1 

8 

1—1 






03 

« 
o 

w 
>< 
P4 

< 
1— 1 


a o o 
2-g| 


X '^ 00 I ^ 1 CO 
^ CO T-H 1 1 


"^2 


J2 


CO 


00 

T— 1 

CM 
C^l 






1— 1 

o 

C^l 

CO 




"-0 
CO 
CM 


05 
< 
K 

o 
o 




• 1 h>. CO lO 1 C5 1—1 

5 C5 ci lo ^ CO 


"^2 


J2 


O t^ i-H 

GO LO CM 
Tt^ C5 GO 
^ Tt^ CO 






LO 






00 
CO 

o 

CO 


oa 
« 

9 
Q 
« 
< 

m 

« 
O 


ao 5 

2-g:^ 


X lO CO 05 (M l:^ CO 

3 O 00 l^ O 00 ^ 


"32 


hJ LO 


CM 00 
00 O 
C^l CM 






C^l 

o 




O CM 

CM 1-1 

lO i-H 


O 


2-g3 


-H O C^7 1 O Ol 
5 CO O O Tt^ CM 


"3 
o 


J2 




CM Tf^ Tf^ 

00 rtn lO 
O 00 O 
CO CO CO 










CO TfH 

O 1-* 
T:t^ CM 
00 CM 




^S2 


1— ( 


:> ^ 




5 lo c 


<1 c 


6 c 


S c 

'^ 




6 c 


5 c 

^ Ci 


i d 

:> o 

1— ( 



52 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



41. Yields under irrigation. — Under irrigation in the 
Western States no other hay plant will produce such 
high yields as alfalfa. The most extensive investigations 
comparing different hay crops under irrigation have been 
conducted at the Utah Experiment Station. Up to a 
certain maximum, the yields tend to increase with the 
amount of water applied, but the highest return per inch 
of water is secured with the smallest applications. See 
table, p. 51. 

42. Cost of seeding. — The cost of seeding per acre 
is in some cases a reason for preference where choice is 
possible, as is shown in the following table. The prices 
given are New York wholesale prices in January, 1914 : — 



Cost of Seed per Acre, using Average Amount 



Plant 



Timothy . . . . 
Orchard-grass . 

Redtop 

Brome-grass . 
Kentucky blue-grass 
Italian rye-grass . . 
Perennial rye-grass . 
Tall oat-grass . 
Tall fescue . . . . 
Meadow fescue . 
Red clover . . . . 
Alsike clover . 

Alfalfa 

Sweet clover . 



Rate of 
Seeding 



Pounds 

15 
20 
10 
20 
25 
30 
30 
30 
20 
20 
8 
12 
20 
25 



Cost of 

Seed per 

Pound 



Cents 

61 
15 
10 
10 
14 



14 
18 
11 
17 
20 
15 
20 



Cost of 

Seed per 

Acre 



.975 
3.00 
1.00 
2.00 
3.50 
1.50 
1.50 
4.20 
3.60 
2.20 
1.36 
2.40 
3.00 
5.00 



The cost of some of these seeds would be much reduced 
if the demand for them were greater. 



CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 53 

In the case of many grasses the higli cost of the seeds is 
more due to small demand than to high cost of production. 

43. Time of harvesting. — The time of harvesting some 
hay plants is much earlier than that of others. Further- 
more, some hay plants must be promptly harvested at 
a certain stage, or otherwise the crop deteriorates, and 
in some cases the subsequent growth is affected. It is 
obviously unsatisfactory to have the haying season come 
at a time when other farm work is pressing. It is even 
more so if the crop is one that must be cut during a very 
brief period, as both unfavorable weather and press of 
other work may interfere. Timothy remains in good 
condition to cut much longer than most grasses. Alfalfa 
with its frequent cuttings often comes into conflict with 
other farm operations. 

44. Ease of harvesting and curing. — This factor is 
important mainly in determining the choice between 
forages of approximately equal yields. Corn is preferred 
to sorghum partly because it deteriorates less easily, 
partly because sorghums are considered '^ hard on the land." 
Timothy is preferred over other similar grasses partly 
because its mowing season extends over a period of two 
or three weeks, thus permitting a better chance of good 
curing weather. Alfalfa is handicapped in humid regions 
by the necessity of prompt cutting when mature, and the 
difficulty of curing. Cowpeas are notoriously difficult to 
harvest and cure, and partly for this reason soybeans are 
becoming more popular. 

45. Demands or prejudices of the user. — Where hay 
is grown to market, the demand or prejudice of the user 
is frequently the principal factor that determines the crop 
to be grown. Such market prejudices are the result of 
long-established experience or custom, and even where 
erroneous, are changed only with great difficulty. 



54 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

In most American cities, the market is strongly prej- 
udiced in favor of timothy hay as horse feed, so that any 
other sort of grass hay commands a smaller price. In 
Europe, on the contrary, Italian rye-grass furnishes the 
popular market hay, though timothy apparently grows 
quite as well in Europe as in America. 

Cattle feeders in the West favor alfalfa greatly, and 
are willing to pay considerably more for alfalfa hay than 
for any other. 

In the region where Kentucky blue-grass does well it is 
almost the only grass sown for permanent pastures. 
European farmers do not regard it nearly so highly, and 
in their practice usually plant more or less complex 
mixtures of grass seeds for pasture. 

46. Feeding values. — The problem of determining 
the relative values of roughages for feeding purposes is 
involved and difficult. Three general methods have been 
employed, namely : — 

1. Direct feeding experiments in which the value of 
the compared feeds is determined by the results secured, 
whether in milk, flesh, wool, labor, etc. 

2. Determination by chemical analyses of the nutrient 
substances contained in the feed, and the proportion di- 
gested by the animal, the latter constituting the digestible 
nutrients. 

3. Determination of the net energy of a feed ; namely, 
that available to the production of milk, flesh and the 
Uke. 

47. Feeding experiments. — Simple feeding experi- 
ments may be planned so that two single feeds may be 
directly compared with each other or both may be com- 
pared to a third taken as a standard. To secure reliable 
results in feeding experiments, both care and skill are 



CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 55 

required. Broadly speaking, the reliability of the results 
will depend upon the uniformity of the animals as to size, 
sex, age, used in the experiment ; upon the number of 
individuals used ; and upon the length of time the ex- 
periment continues. 

But few experiments in which two roughages have been 
compared fulfill the above requirements, but the results 
secured in American experiments with grass or legume 
hays are cited in connection with the feeding value of each 
particular hay. 

Perhaps the most extensive data from direct feeding 
trials are those secured in Denmark and Sweden in con- 
nection with the feeding of dairy cows. In these trials 
the standard of value or feed iinit is one pound of dry 
matter in corn, wheat, barley, palm-nut meal or roots, 
with which the value of other feeds as determined by 
actual feeding is compared. 

The results thus far reached lead to the conclusion 
that for milk production there is required to equal 1 feed 
unit 2 to 3 (average 2.5) pounds hay ; 6 to 10 (average 8) 
pounds silage, green clover or mixed green grasses ; 8 to 
12 (average 10) pounds mangels, rutabagas and carrots ; 
10 to 15 (average 12.5) pounds turnips; 12 to 18 (average 
15) pounds beet leaves. 

Woll has determined tentatively that the following 
amounts of American feeds probably equal 1 feed unit ; 
namely, 1.5 to 3 (average 2) pounds alfalfa or mixed hay, 
oat hay, oat and pea hay, barley and pea hay or redtop 
hay ; 2.5 to 3.5 (average 3) pounds timothy hay, prairie 
hay or sorghum hay ; 3.5 to 6 (average 4.2) pounds corn 
stover, stalks or fodder, marsh hay or cut straw. 

It by no means follows that the relative value of these 
feeds for dairy cows represents their respective value for 



66 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

other animalSj for which separate feeding trials would 
need to be conducted. 

48. Chemical analyses. — Chemical analyses of feeds 
usually consider the dry matter as made up of crude 
protein, that is, the nitrogen multiplied by 6.25 ; ether 
extract, sometimes called fat, the materials soluble in ether 
and consisting of fats, resins, chlorophyll and other 
substances ; ash, the mineral matters that remain after 
incineration of a sample ; crude fiber, the portion that 
remains undissolved after boiling successively in a weak 
acid and a weak alkali under standard conditions ; and 
nitrogen-free extract, the remaining matter after the above 
are subtracted, and consisting mainly of starches and 
sugars. In recent years part of the nitrogen-free extract 
has been determined as pentosans, while the remainder 
has been called undetermined. 

Chemical analyses of the same plant species may vary 
greatly, depending on the soil in which the plant grew, 
the stage when cut, the amount of irrigation water applied 
or the presence of fungous disease. Indeed, any factor 
which affects the growth of the plant also affects its 
composition. 

In different American analyses of timothy hay the 
protein content varies from 3.75 to 9.69 per cent, and in 
European analyses from 4.7 to 10.8 per cent; the ether 
extract from .97 to 3.98 per cent in American and 1.1 to 
3.8 per cent in European analyses. 

Chemical analyses can in no sense replace feeding ex- 
periments in determining feeding values. With a new 
forage plant a chemical analysis can throw no light on 
palatability, digestibility or physiological effect. 

49. Chemical composition as affected by soil fertility 
and by fertilizers. — Extensive experiments on the effect 



CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 



57 



of fertilizers on the protein content of grasses were con- 
ducted at the Connecticut (Storrs) Experiment Station. 
In every case the protein content of the grass was greater 
when nitrogen was appHed in fertihzers than when it was 
not. In general, the protein content of the grass increased 
with the amount of nitrogen applied as fertilizer. The 
results of 73 experiments are summarized in the following 
table : — 

Table showing Percentage of Protein in Timothy and 
Other Grasses as related to Fertilizers Applied 



Results op Analyses showing Relation between Nitrogen applied in 
Fertilizers and Protein (N. x 6.25) found in Resulting Crops 







Phos. acid 
and potash 


Mixed 


Mixed 


Mixed 




No. of ex- 


minerals 
and 25 lb. 


minerals 
and 50 lb. 


minerals 
and 75 lb. 




periments 


(mixed 
minerals) 


nitrogen 


nitrogen 


nitrogen 






per acre 


per acre 


per acre 






% 


% 


% 


% 


Mixed grasses 


5 


7.6 1 


7.6 


8.8 


9.8 


Orchard-grass 


2 


8.9 


10.2 


— 


12.6 


Timothy . . 


2 


7.7 


8.1 


— 


10.6 


Redtop 


3 


— 


8.3 


— 


11.7 


7 other pure 












grasses . 


7 


— 


10.2 


— 


12.1 



At the New York Experiment Station in 1887, fertilizing 
plots of timothy and Italian rye-grass did not indicate 
any definite effect upon the protein composition, ap- 
parently because there was already ample nitrogen in the 
soil. The experiment was repeated in 1888, and in every 
case where nitrogen fertilizers were added the proteid 
content of the timothy was increased. 

Similar work has been conducted at other experiment 

1 Included more clover than other plots. 



58 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



stations and much along the same hne in Europe. There 
remains no doubt that the chemical content of plants is 
directly influenced by the soil, and that other things being 
equal the richest feed, especially of grasses, is that grown 
on the most fertile soil. 

50. Chemical composition as affected by stage of 
maturity. — The variation in chemical composition de- 
pending on stage of development has been studied in many 
plants by many investigators. 

The results secured in 1890 by Stone at the New Hamp- 
shire Experiment Station are here cited : — 

Timothy — Chemical Composition as affected by Time 

OF Harvesting 



Average height of 
plants 8 inches . 

Heads appearing . 

Heads beginning to 
bloom .... 

Heads in full bloom . 

Seed forming 

Seed becoming hard 



Water 



4.33 

5.85 

5.35 
6.37 
7.37 
7.51 



Ash 



5.16 
6.19 

5.47 
5.81 
5.03 
5.03 



Pro- 
tein 



11.54 
9.14 

7.00 
6.81 

5.81 
6.25 



Fiber 



19.23 

24.28 

26.09 
26.60 
26.86 
26.10 



N.-free 
Extract 



54.64 
50.71 

53.66 

51.88 
52.23 

52.85 



Fat 



5.10 

3.83 

2.43 
2.53 
2.70 
2.26 



51. Variation in chemical composition from unascer- 
tained causes. — In any series of chemical analyses of a 
hay plant such as timothy there is a wide variation shown 
in the amount of each constituent. 

The following table shows the average and extremes 
for each constituent in the 68 American analyses of timothy 
compiled by Jenkins and Winton and 29 European analyses 
compiled by Stebler and Volkart : — 



CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 



59 



Analyses of Timothy Hay 







Percentage Composition 


Chemical Analyses 


No. OF 

Anal- 
yses 


Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Fiber 


N.-free 
Extract 


Fat 


American : — 
















Average . . 


68 


13.18 


4.37 


5.87 


29.03 


45.08 


2.47 


Minimum . 




6.12 


2.50 


3.75 


22.20 


34.27 


0.97 


Maximum . . 




28.88 


6.34 


9.69 


38.46 


58.52 


3.98 


European : — 
















Average 


29 


14.3 


5.0 


6.9 


26.2 


45.0 


2.6 


Minimum . 






3.2 


4.7 


13.6 


36.4 


1.1 


Maximum . . 






7.3 


10.8 


37.5 


50.6 


3.8 





52. Digestible nutrients. — To determine the digestible 
nutrients of a feed, it is fed to an animal under test con- 
ditions and the voided matter in the feces is then analyzed. 
The difference is the digestible portion, which is usually 
expressed as a percentage of the whole, and is called 
the coefficient of digestibility. The coefficient of digestibil- 
ity varies considerably. It is affected more or less — 

1. By the kind of animal employed, especially the horse 
as compared to ruminants ; 

2. By the individuality of the animal ; 

3. By the stage of development of the plant when cut, 
young plants being more digestible ; 

4. By the age of the feed, fresh being better than old ; 

5. By fine cutting of the feed in some cases ; 

6. Sometimes by other feeds in the ration ; 
Digestibility is not appreciably affected by drying, 

moistening or cooking. 

In thus comparing the different feeds it is assumed 
that the digestible portions of the protein, carbohydrates. 



60 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



fats, and fiber in different plants are each of equal nutritive 
value, although they differ considerably in actual composi- 
tion, and as is now known, in actual feeding value. The 
method of digestible nutrients requires much less time and 
expense than the direct method of actual feeding, but 
the results are less reliable. In the absence of actual 
feeding experiments, however, it furnishes an approxi- 
mation of the feeding value of the substance in question. 

The feeding value of a substance of which only a chemi- 
cal analysis is available may be conjectured by assuming 
that the coefficient of digestibility is the same as that of 
some similar feed. 

In the accompanying table is shown the amount of 
digestible nutrients in four grass hays, four legume hays, 
and two concentrates : — 

Table showing Pounds of Digestible Nutrients in 
100 Pounds Dry Matter. (Henry) 



Kind of Feed 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Ether 
Extract 


Johnson-grass , 


2.9 


45.6 


0.8 


Timothy ....... 


2.8 


42.4 


1.3 


Redtop 


4.8 


46.9 


1.0 


Bermuda 


6.4 


44.9 


1.6 


Red clover 


7.1 


37.8 


1.8 


Crimson clover 


10.5 


34.9 


1.2 


Sweet clover 


11.9 


36.7 


0.5 


Alfalfa 


11.4 


40.0 


0.8 


Bran 


11.9 


42.0 


2.5 


Shelled corn 


7.8 


66.8 


4.3 



Attempts have often been made to determine the rela- 
tive value of a feed in a single term by assigning a defi- 
nite value per pound to the protein, the fat, the carbo- 



CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 



61 



hydrates and the fiber digested. No matter what value 
is assigned to each of these constituents, the results secured 
vary considerably from the market prices. Nevertheless, 
the price of protein feeds is based to some extent on their 
protein content. 

Table showing the Relative Money Value of Various 
Feeds, determined by assuming Values to each Digest- 
ible Nutrient 





Protein $.037 


.$.04 


---$.04 


---$.025 


- - - $.03 


Kind of Feed 


Carbohy. .014 


--- .01 


--- .0125 


--- .01 


--- .01 




Fat .032 


--- .02 


--- .02 


--- .0225 


--- .02 


Grass hay : — 












Johnson-grass 


$15.04 


$11.76 


$14.04 


$10.93 


$11.18 


Timothy . . . 


14.89 


11.24 


13.36 


10.49 


10.70 


Redtop .... 


17.51 


13.42 


15.76 


12.19 


12.66 


Bermuda . . . 


18.59 


14.74 


16.98 


12.90 


13.46 


Average value 












per ton . . 


16.53 


12.79 


15.04 


11.63 


12.00 


Legume hay : — 












Red clover . . 


19.27 


13.96 


15.86 


11.92 


12.54 


Crimson clover . 


18.31 


15.86 


17.66 


12.77 


13.76 


Sweet clover . . 


19.88 


17.06 


18.90 


13.52 


14.68 


Alfalfa .... 


19.99 


16.94 


18.90 


13.64 


14.72 


Average value 












per ton . 


19.36 


15.96 


17.83 


12.76 


13.93 


Concentrates : — 












Bran .... 


22.65 


18.92 


21.02 


15.48 


16.54 


Shelled corn . 


27.54 


21.32 


24.68 


19.35 


19.76 


Gluten feed . 


35.31 


30.76 


33.40 


21.42 


26.50 


Cottonseed meal 


41.46 


35.74 


35.82 


27.54 


27.22 


Average value 












per ton . 


31.74 


26.64 


25.73 


20.95 


22.51 



In the above table the values of various feeds has 
been figured in terms of money by determining the average 



62 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

values of the digestible proteins, carbohydrates and fat 
a pound in timothy taken at $15 a ton, bran at $27.60 
a ton, gluten feed at $30 a ton, cottonseed meal 
at $32 a ton, and alfalfa at $20 a ton. By comparing 
timothy with each of the others in order the value of 
the carbohydrates is determined respectively as $.012, 
$.015, $.014 and $.014 a pound, an average of $.014. 
The respective values for the protein are $.006, $.025, $.025 
and $.041 a pound, — an average of $.039. The average 
value of the fat similarly determined is $.032 a pound. 

In the other four columns of the table arbitrary values 
are given to the nutrients for comparison. 

In a general way the figures show correspondence to 
market value. How nearly they may represent the true 
relative values of the feeds does not appear in the light of 
present knowledge. 

53. Net energy values. — The energij value of a feed is 
determined by an instrument called a calorimeter, and 
is measured in therms of 1000 calories. A calorie is the 
amount of heat required to raise 1 kilogram of water 1 
degree Centigrade. 

The net energy value of a feed is that which remains 
after deducting from its total energy value that lost in the 
feces, in the urine, in gases and in the work of mastication, 
digestion and assimilation. The loss in gases and in the 
labor of assimilating the feed is measured by keeping the 
animal in a special apparatus — the respiration calorim- 
eter. 

From investigations conducted at the Pennsjdvania 
Experiment Station, Dr. H. P. Armsby has determined 
the net energy values for a number of roughages as well 
as concentrates. The energy values of the roughage 
feeds are shown in the following table : — 



CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 63 

Energy Value of Roughage in 100 Pounds 



Feeding Stuff 



Total Dry 
Matter 



Digestible 

True 

Protein 



Net 
Energy 
Value 



Green fodder and silage : — 

Alfalfa 

Clover, crimson . 

Clover, red .... 

Corn fodder, green 

Corn silage .... 

Hungarian grass . 

Rape 

Rye 

Timothy 

Hay and dry coarse fodders : - 

Alfalfa liay .... 

Clover hay, red 

Corn forage, field cured 

Corn stover .... 

Cowpea hay .... 

Hungarian hay 

Oat hay 

Soybean hay .... 

Timothy hay .... 
Straws : — 

Oat straw 

Rye straw 

Wheat straw .... 
Roots and tubers : — 

Carrots 

Mangel-wurzels 

Potatoes 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 



Pounds 

28.2 
19.1 
29.2 
20.7 
25.6 
28.9 
14.3 
23.4 
38.4 

91.6 

84.7 
57.8 
59.5 
89.3 
92.3 
84.0 
88.7 
86.8 

90.8 
92.9 
90.4 

11.4 

9.1 

21.1 

11.4 

9.4 



Pounds 

2.50 
2.19 
2.21 
.41 
.88 
1.33 
2.16 
1.44 
1.04 

6.93 
5.41 
2.13 
1.80 

8.57 
3.00 
2.59 
7.68 
2.05 

1.09 
.63 
.37 

.37 
.14 
.45 

.88 
.22 



Therms 

12.45 
11.30 
16.17 
12.44 
16.56 
14.76 
11.43 
11.63 
19.08 

34.41 
34.74 
30.53 
26.53 
40.76 
44.03 
26.97 
38.65 
33.56 

21.21 

20.87 
16.56 

7.82 
4.62 
18.05 
8.00 
5.74 



These values have been secured wholly from experi- 
ments on fattening cattle. 

"Even for this purpose many of them are confessedly approxi- 
mate estimates, and still less can they be regarded as strictly 



64 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

accurate for other kinds of animals and other purposes of feeding. 
Nevertheless, there seems to be reason for believing that they also 
represent fairly well the relative values of feeding stuffs for sheep 
at least, and probably for horses, and for growth and milk pro- 
duction as well as for fattening. At any rate, there can be little 
doubt that they are decidedly more accurate than the figures 
which have been commonly used, and we are quite justified in 
using them tentatively and subject to correction by the results 
of later experiments. 

"As regards swine, the matter is far less certain, and it may 
perhaps be questioned whether the values given in the table are 
any more satisfactory for this animal than the older ones." 

54. Starch values. — The unit of this system proposed 
by Kellner is one pound of digestible starch for beef pro- 
duction. Kellner found that one pound of digestible 
starch in excess to a maintenance ration would form ap- 
proximately one-fourth pound of fat. On this basis 
1 pound of digestible protein is equal to .94 pound of 
digestible starch, and 1 pound of oil in seeds equals 2.41 
pounds of digestible starch in fattening value. 

These values are in excess of what the animal actually 
gets from the feed, so that arbitrary deductions have to be 
made to compensate for the work of mastication and 
digestion. 

55. Comparison of feeding values. — Woll has en- 
deavored to reduce to a common basis the relative values 
of various feeds as determined by the feed unit system, by 
Kellner's starch values and by Armsby's therms. The 
average of the net energy values of corn, wheat, rye, barley 
and wheat middlings is approximately 80 therms, which is 
considered equal to 1 feed unit. By the same method 
83 starch values is equivalent to 1 feed unit. In general, 
the corresponding values by the three methods are close, 
but there are some marked exceptions : — • 



CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 



65 



Table showing Comparison of Therms, Starch Values 
AND Feed Units 



Corn . . . . 

Wheat . . . . 
Rye . . . . 
Barley . . . . 

Wheat midcUings 
Cottonseed meal . 
Oil meal 
Distillers' grains 
GlLten feed . . 
Dried brewers' 

grains 
Peas .... 
Malt sprouts 
Oats .... 
Wheat bran . 
Sugar beet pulp, 

dried . . . 
Alfalfa hay 
Timothy hay . 
Corn stover . 
Oat straw 
Green alfalfa . 
Green corn 
Corn silage 
Potatoes . 
Carrot 
Turnips 
Rutabagas 



Therms (Armsby) 



88.8 
82.6 
81.7 

80.8 
77.7 
84.2 
78.9 
79.2 
79.3 

60.0 

71.8 
46.3 
66.3 

48.2 

60.1 

34.4 

33.6 

26.5 

21.2 

12.5 

12.4 

16.6 

18.1 

7.8 

5.7 

8.0 



Ratio 
80 1 = 1.00 



.95 
1.01 
1.0 
1.0 

1.3 
1.1 
1.7 
1.2 
1.7 

1.3 

2.3 

2.4 

3.0 

3.8 

6.4 

6.5 

4.8 

4.4 
10.3 
14.1 
10.0 



Starch 

Values 
(Kellner) 



.74 

.85 

.85 

.89 

.83 

.83 

.84 

.9 

.9 

1.1 
.9 
1.6 
1.0 
1.25 

1.2 

1.9 
2.6 
3.0 
3.6 

7.2 

8.3 

7.7 

3.2 

7.0 
12.6 
10.4 



.83 1 



Feed Units 



Aver- 
age 



1.0 



.9 
.9 
.9 

1.0 
1.0 
1.1 
1.1 
1.1 

1.1 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 
4.0 
7.0 
8.0 
6.0 
6.0 
8.0 
12.5 
9.0 



Range 



1.5-3.0 
2.5-3.5 
3.0-6.0 
4.0-5.0 

6-8 

6-10 

5-7 

4-6 



11-15 
9-10 



In figuring the values of the feeds according to the 
digestible nutrients, redtop, johnson-grass and Bermuda 



^ Assumed average figures. 



66 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

are apparently all more valuable than timothy ; and sweet 
clover fully as valuable as alfalfa. 

If measured by therms, cowpea hay is superior to alfalfa, 
and Hungarian-grass to either ; while corn stover is 
practically as valuable as oat hay. 

It may be that the relative values assigned to roughage 
based on experience and reflected in market values are as 
erroneous as the above data would indicate. It is apparent 
that much further work is necessary before there can be 
agreement as to the comparative feeding values of rough- 
age for different purposes. 



CHAPTER IV 

SEEDS AND SEEDING 

Nothing is more important than the seeds, as to quality 
and name, in the growing of a crop. The best of land and 
preparation and the best effort in tillage may bring small 
return if the seed is not good, clean and true to name. 

56. Quality. — The quahty of seeds depends on various 
characteristics, especially genuineness, purity and via- 
bility. Other points of more or less importance are age, 
size, plumpness, color, weight per bushel, source of 
seed and in some cases freedom from insects and such 
diseases as smut. Among the legumes the percentage of 
hard seeds is also to be considered. 

The determination of the actual quality of the seed 
requires special knowledge and experience. In the first 
place the sample must be representative of the bulk. The 
other seeds present either as impurities or adulterants 
should be identified to prevent fraud and to avoid intro- 
ducing noxious weeds. Finally, many forage seeds — 
especially grasses — require much care and special 
apparatus to secure a fair test of germination. 

For these reasons, most forage crop seeds should be 
purchased under guarantee, or a sample secured first, 
to be referred to a seed laboratory. 

57. Genuineness. — By this term is meant the trueness 
of the seed to name. As most forage crops do not contain 
special varieties, this is readily determined by comparison 

67 



68 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

with authentic samples. In other crops, however, special 
varieties are often indistinguishable by their seeds, so that 
one must depend upon the reliability or the guarantee 
of the seedsmen. Among forage crops, mammoth and 
medium red clover, and Grimm and ordinary alfalfa are 
examples of varieties indistinguishable by their seeds. 

58. Purity. — By the purity of seed is meant its freedom 
fron;! foreign matter, whether trash, chaff, weed seeds 
or adulterants. With the exception of perhaps the last- 
mentioned, impurities are far more common in forage 
crop seeds than in any others. This is due partly to the 
fact that most grasses and many legumes are grown 
broadcasted, and it is rarely possible to keep the fields 
free from weeds. Furthermore, grass seeds as a rule are 
light in weight, so that it is difficult to remove chaff, small 
pieces of straw and the like. 

The impurities that usually occur in each region where 
seed is largely grown are well known, so that if any others 
are present, it is strong evidence of adulteration. 

59. Viability. — The viability of seed or capacity for 
germination depends upon many factors, among which 
are the conditions of the season when grown, the care 
exercised in harvesting and curing, the manner in which 
it has been stored, and the age of the seed. 

Viability is tested in laboratories by means of special 
germinators in which the temperature, moisture, ventila- 
tion and light can be controlled. The best temperature 
varies somewhat for the different species. For most 
grasses the temperatures between 68 degrees and 86 
degrees Fahrenheit are considered best, and it is found 
advantageous to use the higher temperature 6 hours and 
the lower 18 hours each day. 

Most kinds of farm seeds may, however, be tested in 



SEEDS AND SEEDING 69 

very simple germinators, such as in a box of sand, or be- 
tween two moist cloths in a covered dish. Grass seeds 
are, however, more exacting in the conditions they require 
than most other farm seeds, so that misleading results 
may easily be secured. 

The length of time required by different seeds to ger- 
minate also varies widely. With most sorts ten days is 
sufficient time to allow, but many grasses require twice 
this amount of time. 

60. Actual value of seed. — The real or actual value 
of seed for sowing can be determined only when its purity 
and viability are known. It is the product of the purity 
multiplied by the viability, both expressed as percentages. 
Thus, if the purity be 90 per cent and the viability 80 
per cent, the actual value or percentage of good germinable 
seeds is 90 times 80, or 72 per cent. One reason why rates 
of seeding recommended by different authorities vary 
so widely is due to the difference in the actual value of 
the seeds used. 

61. Superiority of local seed. — Numerous European 
experiments with grasses and clovers show as a rule that 
locally grown seeds give superior yields to those brought 
from a distance. In the United States this phenomenon 
is well known in the case of highly bred crops like corn, 
but has obtained little recognition in the case of grasses 
and clovers. Results with these crops are particularly 
instructive, as they have not been subject to artificial 
breeding, and hence the differences they show may fairly 
be considered due to natural selection or local adaptation. 
With most other crops, the factor of difference in variety 
enters the problem. 

The amount of evidence on this subject is insufficient 
for final conclusions, but it tends to uphold the generaliza- 



70 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

tion that seeds grown locally produce superior crops to 
those brought from a distance. Theoretically this has 
been ascribed to adaptation or acclimatization, usually 
with the idea that superiority is attained by the elimina- 
tion more or less graduall}^ of the inferior individuals. 
Much more experimental data are needed on this subject, 
which indeed has been but little investigated in the United 
States. 

62. Standards of purity and germination. — Attempts 
have been made to establish standards of purity and 
germination for all farm seeds. There is, however, a con- 
siderable variation in the purity of many forage crop 
seeds, depending on the place grown, the season and the 
care exercised. Furthermore, it is not so much the amount 
of the impurity as the character of it which is most im- 
portant. Thus, alfalfa seed containing 1 per cent of 
dodder seed is less desirable than that containing no 
dodder but a larger percentage of other weed seeds. A 
few seeds of dangerous weeds like Canada thistle are far 
more serious than many seeds of ordinary weeds. 

The viability of seed varies not only with its age, but 
with the care in handling, and with the season, especially 
at harvest time. In some seeds, indeed, the viability 
is less when fresh than when one year old. On the whole 
there is little choice between 100 pounds of forage seed 
germinating 90 per cent and 120 pounds germinating 75 
per cent. 

While fixed standards of purity and germination are 
scarcely practicable, it is well to know what degrees of 
purity and germination are found in high grade com- 
mercial seed. The average purity and germination found 
in the trade is of less consequence, as this is influenced by 
the efficiency of legislation and inspection : — 



SEEDS AND SEEDING 



71 



Table showing Purity and Germination of Forage Seeds 

OF High Quality 



Name of Seed 



Kentucky blue-grass 
Timothy .... 
Orchard-grass 
Meadow fescue 
Perennial rye-grass 
Italian rye-grass 
Brome-grass 
Redtop .... 
Tall oat-grass 
Velvet-grass 
Meadow foxtail 
Millets .... 
Red clover . . . 
White clover 
Alsike clover 
Alfalfa .... 
Sainfoin .... 
Crimson clover 
Hairy vetch . 
Common vetch 



Purity 


Germination 


Per cent 


Per cent 


75-85 


70-85 


95-99 


95-99 


90-98 


90-95 


9.5-99 


95-98 


95 


85-90 


95 


80-85 


98-99 


90-95 


95-98 


95-98 


80 


80 


70 


70 


75 


70 


99 


95 


96-99 


90-99 


95-99 


90-99 


96-99 


90-99 


98-99 


90-99 


98 


75-80 


99 


95-99 


98-99 


95-98 


98-99 


95-98 



63. Adulteration and misbranding. — Seeds are not 
infrequently adulterated by the admixture of similar- 
looking cheaper seeds. Whenever such inferior seeds are 
found present in considerable quantities, it may reasonably 
be considered to be due to adulteration. Sometimes one 
kind of seed is sold for another which it closely re- 
sembles, as trefoil for alfalfa, or Canada blue-grass for 
Kentucky blue-grass. Such are usually willful cases of 
misbranding. 

Adulteration and misl^randing of seeds was formerly 
much more common, but the practice is by no means 



72 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

obsolete. At one time in Europe particles of quartz 
were prepared and colored especially to adulterate 
clover seed. In England there was a regular business in 
the collecting and killing of weed seeds to be used as 
adulterants. 

Among the seeds that are still often adulterated are red 
clover, alfalfa, alsike, Kentucky blue-grass, orchard-grass, 
redtop, meadow fescue and brome-grass. 

64. Color and plumpness of seeds. — Depending on 
the concUtions under which it was grown, there is much 
difference in seeds as to brightness of color and degree of 
plumpness. 

Shriveled seeds make weak seedlings, but no f o'd experi- 
ments where shriveled were compared with plump seeds 
seem to be recorded. 

Discolored seed is evidence that the seed is old, or has 
been badly stored, or more usually that it was harvested 
under unfavorable conditions. 

65. Age of seed. — Seeds vary greatly in the length 
of time they will retain their germinating power. In gen- 
eral, the seeds of legumes are much longer lived than those 
of grasses. Old seeds make weaker seedlings than fresh 
seeds, and this probably has its effect on the resultant yield. 

In red clover and other legumes the germination of 
fresh seeds is usually less than that of seeds one year old, 
owing to the presence of '^ hard " seeds. (§ 71.) 

Cowpea seeds, at least some varieties, also refuse to 
germinate when fresh unless the testa is broken or scratched 
with sand. Apparently there is a waterproof coating 
that for a time prevents the absorption of water. 

The results obtained during many years at the Zurich, 
Switzerland, Seed Control Station, show that few forage 
seeds are worth planting when three years old. 



SEEDS AND SEEDING 



73 



If, however, seeds be stored in small quantities under 
very favorable conditions, the viabilit}" is retained much 
longer than in seed warehouses. Thus Samek secured 
the following results : — ■ 

Viability of Various Forage Seeds stored in Paper Bags 
IN A Dry Airy Room during 11 Years. — J. Samek 



. 








Percentage of 


Vitality 






Kind of Seee 




















j 




1 


2 


.3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 1 11 




yr. 


yr. 


yr- 


yr. 


yr. 


yr. 


yr. 


yr. 


yr. 


yr. ! yr. 


Red clover 


. 90 


90 


88 


84 


74 


68 


44 


16 


10 


3 2 


White clover 


. 74 


72 


63 


52 


50 


50 


35 


31 


26 


23 


22 


Alsike clover 


. 73 


64 


51 


37 


15 


7 


6 


5 


3 


3 


3 


Sainfoin 


. 92 


92 


78 


61 


54 


52 


19 


18 


13 


9 


* 


Serradella . 


. 36 


32 


33 


22 


14 


11 


9 


6 


2 


Ol 


Alfalfa . . 


. 94 


91 


87 


75 


72 


71 


68 


66 


63 


59 54 


Tall oat-grass 


. 70 


66 


59 


43 


24 


12 


10 


2 


1 


o| 


Italian rye-gras 


s . 67 


62 


61 


55 


43 


39 


29 


15 


8 


4 


1 


English rye-gra 


ss 72 


70 


66 


60 


42 


28 


22 


9 


5 


1 





Tall fescue 


. 83 


80 


72 


68 


48 


42 


35 


18 


9 


1 





Sweet vernal-gi 


•ass 70 


62 


57 


46 


43 


37 


31 


13 


9 


8 ! 4 


Meadow foxtai] 


[ . 13 


11 


9 


7 


7 


5 


3 


1 


1 


0| 


Timothy 


. 95 


90 


90 


88 


86 


79 


66 


39 


15 


11 


Orchard-grass 


. 46 


47 


44 


44 


39 


29 


21 


12 


8 


5 I * 


Blue-grass . 


. 28 


17 


17 


17 


16 


11 


8 


5 


2 


o! 


Crested dogstai 


1 . 46 


39 


33 


29 


20 


12 


6 


3 


2 


1 1 


Florin . . 


. 66 


61 


46 


43 


37 


35 


34 


31 


22 


20 I * 


Sheep fescue 


. 68 


67 


68 


42 


21 


18 


10 


4 


3 


01 


Hair-grass . ' 


. 37 


27 


21 


17 


7 


3 

















Spurry . . 


. 85 


70 


68 


59 


46 


42 


37 


25 


21 


8 


2 



* No seeds for examination, all having been used up in previous years. 

66. Source of seeds. — The place in which seed is 
grown may have an important effect upon the resulting 
plant. This is particularly true in the case of highly 
bred plants like corn, but it is also true of crops which 



74 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

have never been improved by artificial selection. As a 
general rule, locally grown seed is likely to be most satis- 
factory, but this is by no means always the case. The 
reasons for this phenomenon are not clear, but it is com- 
monly believed that all plants become better adapted to 
the conditions of culture, or the climate and soil of the 
region in which they are grown a long time, by the gradual 
elimination of such individuals as do not thrive. 

In North America the seeds of most forage crops are 
grown in the same general region in which they are cul- 
tivated, but the exceptions occur to this in case of alfalfa, 
vetches and many grasses of minor importance. In 
Europe, on the contrary, there is a relatively much greater 
importation of grass and legume seeds from foreign sources, 
so that much experimentation has been devoted to deter- 
mining their relative crop-bearing capacities. 

It is usually possible to determine the origin of any lot 
of forage crop seed by the presence of characteristic weed 
seeds. Thus, if orchard-grass is found to contain seeds 
of Lepidium virginicum, Panicum dicliotomwn or Carex 
cephalophora, it certainly was grown in North America ; 
if it contains Danthonia pilosa, Danthonia semiannularis, 
Sporoholus indicus, Hypochceris radicata and others, it in- 
dicates New Zealand origin. If alfalfa seed contains that 
of Grindelia squarrosa, it is probably from the western 
United States ; while Argemone alba indicates an Argen- 
tine origin, and Centaurea picris that it is from Turkestan. 

67. Seed inspection. — In recent times the adulteration 
and misbranding of seeds is becoming less common, mainly 
due to legislation and the official examination of seeds at 
special central stations or laboratories. The first of 
these was established in 1867 at Tharand, Saxony, by 
Nobbe. At the present time such stations are supported 



SEEDS AND SEEDING 75 

by nearly all of the countries of Europe, there being over 
40 in Germany alone. 

The first work of this sort in America was inaugurated 
by Jenkins at the Connecticut Experiment Station 
in 1877. The Seed Laboratory of the United States 
Department of Agriculture was established in 1894, 
and similar work has been carried on by the Canada 
Department of Agriculture since 1903. 

At the present time there are legislative provisions in 
many states for preventing the adulteration and mis- 
branding of seeds. 

68. Sampling. — To secure a fair sample from a bag 
of seed a small amount should be taken from different 
parts of the bag, including the top and the bottom. There 
is a tendency for the smaller and heavier seeds to rattle 
to the bottom in handling, and for the lighter and larger 
seeds to rise toward the top. By mixing the smaller 
samples thus contained, a fair sample of the contents of 
the bag is obtained. 

69. Guaranteed seeds. — The practice of guaranteeing 
the purity and germination of seeds has been adopted 
by several firms, and is likely to become more general. 
This is the fairest and most satisfactory method for the 
buyer. In lieu of guarantees, large users of field seeds 
frequently purchase on the basis that the delivery shall 
be equal in quality to a sample previously submitted. 
No matter how stringent future control laws may become, 
seeds will continue to vary in quality. In a perfectly 
fair transaction both the buyer and the seller should know 
the quality of the goods. 

70. Fungous diseases. — A few grasses are more or less 
subject to the attacks of smut fungi that infect the ovary, 
which, when ripe, is converted into a mass of black spores. 



76 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

In thrashing, these spores are scattered over the seeds, 
and thus the young plants become infected. Among the 
forage grasses thus subject to smut are the sorghums and 
tall oat-grass. Treating the seeds by various different 
methods will destroy the spores or prevent them from 
germinating in time to infect the young seedlings. Such 
methods are commonly used to prevent smut in such 
grain crops as wheat, oats and sorghum, and probably 
would be found efficient in such forage grasses as may be 
similarly affected. 

71. Hard seeds. — In many legumes some of the seeds 
will not absorb water and germinate but remain hard. 
The percentage of hard seeds varies with the seasonal or 
other conditions under which it was grown. In the same 
lot of seed the percentage of hard seed will gradually 
diminish with age. Owing to the presence of such seeds, 
red clover often shows a higher percentage of viability 
when one year old than when fresh. 

American seed laboratories usually state the percentage 
of hard seeds present in a sample. In Europe the practice 
has been to consider a certain per cent of the hard seed 
to be viable ; namely, that which it is believed will ger- 
minate in the soil under favorable conditions. 

The actual value of hard seed when sown in the field 
needs to be determined for each species. It is certain 
that some of it remains unsprouted in the ground at least 
a year. 

Duvel buried '' hard " seeds of red clover in porous 
earthenware pots at depths of 6-8, 18-22 and 36-42 
inches. At the end of 11 months the seeds germinated 
respectively 10.5, 15.5 and 14.5 per cent. The hard seed 
was selected by soaking seeds one year old in water for 
18 hours and then for 20 hours, saving only those that 



SEEDS AND SEEDING 



77 





Fig. 6. — Noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds (No. 1) : a, Sand 
bur; b, wild oat; c, chess; d, darnel; e, quack-grass; f, dock; g, black 
bindweed ; h, Russian thistle ; i, corn cockle ; j, white campion ; k, blad- 
der campion; 1, night-flowering catchfly ; m, cow cockle; n, pennycress ; 
o, field peppergrass ; p, large-fruited false flax ; q, small-fruited false flax ; 
r, ball mustard ; s, black mustard ; t, English charlock. 



78 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

remained hard, which was 51.5 per cent of the whole. 
In another series of samples from this lot, the percentages 
which germinated after 11 months were respectively 4.5, 
5 and 6 per cent for the different depths. 

If hard seed be scratched so that water can be absorbed 
by the embryo, prompt germination results. Recently 
machines have been devised for this purpose, but as their 
capacity is small, they have been used only in experimental 
work. 

Another method of making hard seed viable is to soak 
the seed in commercial sulfuric acid ^ for thirty minutes, 
and then wash with water to remove the acid. Run- 
ning water should be used, if possible, as the mixing of the 
acid with water engenders much heat, and if only a small 
proportion of water is used, the seeds may be injured by 
the heat. The seed, after washing, should be spread out 
to dry. The acid corrodes the seed coat sufficiently so 
that it no longer is impervious to water. 

72. Most dangerous weed seeds. — The percentage of 
weed seeds present as impurities, unless very large, is of 
less concern than the presence of really dangerous weeds, 
even if in very small amount. Among the most dan- 
gerous weed seeds are the dodders, which occur in red 
clover, alfalfa, lespedeza and rarely in other forage seeds ; 
Canada thistle, which is not infrequent in many sorts of 
seeds ; and quack-grass, which may be present in other 
grass seeds. In cases where these weeds cannot be re- 
moved by recleaning, it is usually not advisable to plant 
the seeds. 

73. Weight of seeds. — The weight of seeds to the 
bushel varies considerably with the same species, depending 

I Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. No. 312. 



SEEDS AND SEEDING 



79 




Fig. 7. — Noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds (No. 2) : a, Indian 
mustard ; b, hare's-ear mustard ; c, tumbling mustard ; d, wild carrot ; 
e, field bindweed ; f , flax dodder ; g, clover dodder ; h, small-seeded 
alfalfa dodder ; i, field dodder ; j, large-seeded alfalfa dodder ; k, corn 
gromwell ; 1, rat-tail plantain ; m, buckhorn ; n, ragweed ; o, gumweed ; 
p, wild sunflower ; q, oxeye-daisy ; r, Canada thistle ; s, bull thistle ; 
t, wild chicory. 



80 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

on the conditions of the season or of the locality in which 
the seed was grown, and with the amount of chaff or other 
impurities which it may contain. In most states a legal 
weight to the bushel has been established for each im- 
portant kind of seed. 

The influence of weight of seed upon resultant yields 
is still an open question. With cereals where the same 
volume of heavy, light and unseparated seeds have been 
sown, the resulting differences obtained have usually been 
too small to be significant. 

Few experiments of this sort have been carried out with 
grasses or clovers. Hunt secured better yields of timothy 
at the Cornell Experiment Station with heavy seed, both 
when the same weight and the same number of seeds were 
sown. At the Utah Experiment Station heavy and light 
timothy seeds were separated by means of a salt solution, 
but no difference was obtained in the yield of plots 
planted to each. 

74. Number of seeds in one pound. — The number of 
seeds in one pound of different kinds of field seeds has been 
determined by several investigators. The figures of dif- 
ferent authorities often show wide variation for the same 
kind of seed. This may be due in part to the quality of 
the seed used, as the weight of a bushel from different 
sources or in different seasons may vary greatly. The 
subject is not one of much agronomic value, and mainly 
on this account has received but little attention. In some 
crops like the cowpea, soybean and field pea, the size of 
the seeds and the number in a pound vary greatly accord- 
ing to variety. In this case it is often preferable to use 
the small-seeded varieties for forage production, as less 
seed is required to the acre, and the price of the small- 
seeded sorts is usually just as cheap. 



SEEDS AND SEEDING 



81 



Table showing Weights of Seed in a Bushel 



Name of Seed 



Alfalfa . . . . 
Red clover . 
Alsike clover 
White clover 
Crimson clover 
Kidney vetch . 
Hairy vetch 
Common vetch 
Yellow trefoil . 
Bird's foot trefoil . 
Field peas 
Cowpeas 
Soybeans 
Velvet beans 
Timothy 
Orchard-grass . 
Redtop .... 
Kentucky blue-gras.' 
Canada blue-grass . 
Meadow fescue . . 
Smooth brome . 
Bermuda 
Tall oat-grass . 
Perennial rye-grass 
Italian rye-grass 
Creepin,*; bent . 
Foxtail .... 
Millet .... 
Sorghum 
Johnson-grass . 
Yellow oat-grass 
Meadow foxtail 
Velvet-grass 
Reed canary-grass . 
Sheep's fescue . 
Red fescue . 
Erect brome 
Crested dogstail 
Sweet vernal 



Legal 
Weight 

MOST 

Commonly 
Adopted 



Pounds 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 



60 
60 



60 
60 
60 

45 
14 
14 
14 



20 
48-50 

56 

28 



Extremes 
IN Legal 
Weights 
Adopted 



Pounds 



42-60 
12-14 



48-50 
30-57 



Average 
Weight 
OP One 
Bushel 



Pounds 



60 
60 

60 



60 

14 
14 
18 



13 

10 
20 
16 
16 



5 

6-8 
6^ 

12 
13 

26 



Extreme 
Weights 
OF One 
Bushel 



Pounds 
63 
64 
66 
63 

60-64 



64-66 
52-68 



50 
12-22 
12-40 

6-28 
14-24 
20-30 
12-20 
35-36 
10-16 
10-30 
12-24 

8-32 
40-55 



25-28 
12-14 
12-14 
6-7 
44-48 
10-30 
10-15 
14-15 
20-38 
16 



82 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



Table showing Number of Seeds in One Pound of Various 

Forage Crops 





Authority 


Name of Plani 


Stebler & 
Schroter 












Werner 


Hunter 


Hunt 


Misc. 


Alfalfa .... 


/ 182,000 
\ 237,000 


178,000 


224,000 


f 200,000 
1 240,000 
f 200,000 
\ 550,000 




Red clover . . . 


279,000 


258,000 


232,000 




Alsike clover 


707,000 


643,000 


718,000 


700,000 




White clover . . 


740,000 


682,000 


732,000 


800,000 




Crimson clover 




121,000 


118,000 


f 125,000 
\ 150,000 




Kidney vetch . . 


/ 126,000 
\ 182,000 


176,000 


193,000 






Yellow trefoil 




270,000 


319,000 


325,000 




Sainfoin .... 


22,.500 


22,300 




22,500 




Bird's foot trefoil . 


375,000 


313,000 


412,000 


{ 75,000 




Cowpea .... 








1 250,000 




Burnet .... 






54,000 






Chicory .... 






325,000 






Yarrow .... 






3,510,000 






Goat's rue . . . 


62,000 










Timothy .... 


1,170,500 


948,000 


1,320,000 






Redtop .... 


603,000 


4,000,000 




7,800,000 


f 4,135,900 

111. Exp. Sta. 
' 6,400,000 






















. N. C. Exp. Sta. 


Creeping bent . . 








8,000,000 




Orchard-grass . . 


579,500 


400,000 


426,000 


f 400,000 
\ 480,000 




Kentucky blue-grass 


2,400,000 


2,400,000 


1,860,000 


3,888,000 


2,185,000 
111. Exp. Sta. 


Meadow foxtail 


907,000 


465,000 


490,000 


1,216,000 




Italian rye-grass 


285,000 


260,000 


270,000 


285,000 




Perennial rye-grass 


336,800 


223,000 


223,000 


336,000 




Meadow fescue 


/ 318,200 
1 226,400 


240,000 


236,000 


300,000 




Tall fescue . . . 






246,000 






Sheep's fescue . 


680,000 


923,000 








Hard fescue 






578,000 






Fine-leaved fescue 




1,056,000 


1,561,000 






Tall oat-grass . 


159,000 


147,000 


138,000 


159,000 




Wood meadow-grass 




2,000,000 


2,325,000 






Rough-stalked 
meadow-grass 


f 2,500,000 
1 4,000,000 


2,000,000 


2,235,000 






Sweet vernal 


924,000 


760,000 


738,000 


924,000 




Yellow oat-grass 


2,045,000 


1,175,000 


1,400,000 






Crested dogstail 


1,127,000 


678,000 


886,000 






Velvet-grass 


1,304,000 


1,195,000 




1,304,000 




Reed canary . . 


600,000 


577,000 




660,000 




Various-leaved 


f 350,000 










fescue .... 


1 545,000 
f 364,000 
\ 820,000 










Red fescue . . . 


400,000 








Erect brome 


114,000 


127,000 








Brome .... 


137,000 










Bermuda-grass . 








1,800,000 




Foxtail millet . . 




240,000 




( 175,000 
t 250,000 





SEEDS AND SEEDING 83 

75. Seed production of forage crops, United States, 
1909. — The census statistics for the production of grass 
seeds including grasses, clovers, millet and alfalfa are 
given only in production, as the acreage is wholly or mainly 
included under hay and forage. In the case of peas and 
beans, however, the acreage and production are both given, 
though much of the field peas, cowpeas and sorghums are 
cut for hay. 

" Grass seed," including timothy, clovers, millet and 
alfalfa, is most largely produced ])y the following states, 
the numbers referring to acres harvested: Illinois, 1,289,- 
996; Iowa, 1,118,044; Minnesota, 945,666; Kentucky, 
612,406; South Dakota, 424,623; Kansas, 324,321; 
Ohio, 288,605; Missouri, 257,872; Indiana, 165,488; 
Michigan, 151,567; Oregon, 151,016. 

Field pea seed is mostly produced in Michigan and 
Wisconsin, but much more is grown in Canada. 

Cowpea seed is produced in all the Southern States, 
especially Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina. 

Sorghum seed is produced most largely by Kansas, 
followed by Nebraska, Texas and Oklahoma. 

76. Seeding in practice. — In actual practice three 
systems of sowing grass seeds may be distinguished ; 
namely : (1) seeding on especially prepared land ; (2) seed- 
ing with another broadcasted or drilled crop, usually 
a small grain either simultaneously or in some cases in 
spring on fall-sown grain ; and (3) seeding in the rows of 
a cultivated crop. In some regions, all three of these 
systems prevail. The first system unquestionably gives 
the best results as regards the grass crop, but requires 
additional labor in preparing the land. Where difficulty 
is experienced in securing a good stand of grass, or where 
perennial weeds are troublesome, this method should 



84 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

always be employed. The second system is the common 
one employed in the sowing of timothy and clover, as well 
as other mixtures, the " nurse " crop being some small 
grain. Most commonly the timothy is sown with fall 
wheat and the clover is broadcasted over the field in early 
spring as soon as the frost is out of the ground. In the 
northernmost states and in Canada, the grass seeds are 
sown with a spring crop of small grain. 

The " nurse crop " system has the advantage of economy 
of labor. In fertile farm lands, especially in the north, 
it is as a rule very satisfactory. It needs to be clearly 
recognized that the grasses succeed not by the help of, 
but in spite of, the " nurse crop." After the grain is 
harvested, the slender grass plants which have developed 
in the shade of the cereal are then subjected to the heat 
of midsummer, and sometimes to drought as well. This 
often results in damage to the grass, more serious as a rule 
to spring-sown than to fall-sown. 

The third system, — namely, sowing the grass seed in 
between the rows of a cultivated crop, — is not widely 
employed. Crimson clover is, however, very commonly 
sown in corn at the time of the last cultivation, and this 
same method has been used successfully with red clover, 
alfalfa and with mixed grasses. It has all the advantages 
of a small cereal nurse crop without certain disadvantages. 
The young grass thrives better because it is less crowded 
and less shaded, and practically no injury can accrue from 
lodging. In rotation systems, however, it is desirable to 
follow grass with a cultivated crop, and this is usually 
corn. For this reason, small grain crops necessarily 
follow corn, if employed in the rotation, as is usually the 
case. It is mainly due to the requirements of rotation 
systems that grasses are so seldom sown in cultivated 
crops. 



SEEDS AND SEEDING 85 

77. Rate of seeding. — In the accompanying table is 
given the ordinary rate of seeding broadcasted forage 
crops, with calculations showing the number of seeds 
sown on each square foot. It will be noticed that the 
number is large and that it varies greatly with different 
plants. Were such plants allowed to develop undis- 
turbed by weeds, only a small portion of the seed would 
be required to give a satisfactory stand. It is difficult 
to determine what constitutes a perfect stand, but the 
numbers given are based on the room necessary for the 
full development of a young plant. 

The rates of seeding ordinarily used are purely empirical 
— the result of experience or of experimental field trials. 
The effect of the heavy seeding is to secure a dense stand 
of young plants, which in a measure restrains weeds, 
and which further insures that in competition with the 
weeds a majority of the survivors will be the plant desired. 
This dense stand is especially necessary in perennial 
grasses where the seedlings are slender and in their early 
stages grow but slowly, and thus are relatively inefficient 
against broad-leaved, vigorous weeds. 

It is scarcely possible to seed perennial grasses and 
clovers so heavily that the resultant yield is seriously 
affected. With annuals, however, too dense seeding 
reduces the size of the individuals so much that the yield 
to the acre is also diminished. 

In general the rate of seeding is least in regions where 
the crop is best adapted ; that is, where the individual 
plants are most vigorous and the natural mortality there- 
fore least. The weediness of the soil is also an important 
factor. 

Where seed can be drilled the amount necessary to 
secure a good stand is about 25 per cent less than when 



86 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



broadcasted. The reasons are evident ; namely, the cover- 
ing of the seed uniformly to the most favorable depths as 
well as its more even distribution : — 



Table showing the General Relations between Number 
OF Seeds Sown and Final Stand 





Average 






Average 




Rate of 




Number of 


Number of 




Seeding 


Number of 


Seeds 


Plants to 


Name of Plant 


TO THE 


Seeds to 


TO THE 


THE Square 




Acre 


THE Pound 


Square 
Foot 


Foot for a 
Perfect 




Pounds 






Stand 


Red clover .... 


8 


250,000 


47 


15 


Crimson clover . 


15 


130,000 


45 


15 


Alsike clover 


8 


700,000 


130 


15 


Alfalfa 


20 


200,000 


93 


15 


Sweet clover .... 


25 


235,000 


140 


7 


Timothy 


15 


1,100,000 


350 


90 


Kentucky blue-grass . 


25 


2,400,000 


1400 


130 


Orchard-grass 


20 


4,500,000 


210 


90 


Brome-grass .... 


20 


137,000 


65 


90 


Redtop 


10 


4,000,000 


930 


140 


Meadow fescue . . . 


20 


250,000 


115 


90 


Italian rye-grass 


30 


270,000 


215 


90 


Perennial rye-grass . 


30 


270,000 


215 


90 


Tall oat-grass .... 


40 


150,000 


140 


90 



78. Time of seeding. — There are certain general 
principles involved in determining the best time to seed 
any particular forage crop. These principles refer partly 
to the climate, but more to the inherent habits of the crop 
in question, since these determine almost absolutely the 
time when the seed must be sown. The principles in- 
volved will be more clear by classifjdng forage crops into 
summer annuals, winter annuals, biennials and perennials. 

Summer annuals include such forage crop as millets, 



SEEDS AND SEEDING 87 

sorghums and cowpeas, which Uke maize require a con- 
tinuous, rather high temperature for their best develop- 
ment. They are all plants of tropical origin carried by 
agriculture into temperate regions. All are characterized 
by rather rapid and uniform growth from germination 
to maturity. At their northern limits they succeed best 
if planting is delayed until the latest time which safely 
permits of their maturing, as their growth is seriously 
checked by cool weather. Where the season is longer 
plantings may be timed according to weather and soil 
conditions ; or better, late varieties which can utilize 
the longer season may be grown. A few summer annuals 
like the soybean will withstand cool weather, even light 
frosts, both in spring and fall, but most of them are in- 
tolerant of cold. 

Winter annuals include wheat, rye, oats, barley, Canada 
peas, common vetch, crimson clover and others. Natu- 
rally, they are plants which germinate in the fall and 
mature in spring or summer in regions of mild, often 
frostless, winters. They differ from summer annuals in 
being intolerant of high temperatures during growth, 
and in undergoing more or less dormancy during winter. 
Where the winters are too severe they must be planted in 
spring, but in such cases often suffer from summer heat, 
as commonly occurs with Canada peas and common 
vetch. Where both fall and spring sowings are possible, 
as wheat in some regions, the former usually produce 
better crops, owing partly to better root development, 
and partly to the longer growing season in spring which 
fall planting insures. To a slight degree winter annuals 
show a dual period of development like biennials. 

Biennial plants like the carrot, beet and rutabagas 
are especially instructive, in that their development 



8B FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

during the two seasons is in sharp contrast. Ordinarily 
they are planted in spring. The first season they produce 
above ground only a rosette of leaves, but below ground 
a great root development. During the second season 
there is a large growth of flowering stems, in part due to 
the stored food in the roots. The growth of the first 
season constitutes the crop, unless seed is the object, 
but the amount of herbage above ground is far greater 
the second season. This sharp contrast between the growth 
of the two seasons occurs regardless of whether the seed is 
sown in the spring or in the fall so long as the plants survive 
the winter. 

Herbaceous perennials are much like biennials in that 
the first season is devoted mainly to root development. 
The rosette habit is not so conspicuous, and with many 
species a few flowering shoots are produced if the -seed is 
sown in spring. The second season, abundant top growth 
is produced, and this is regardless of whether the seed was 
sown in the spring or fall, as it is only during the first 
season that the rosette habit predominates. There is 
seldom any gain by sowing a perennial grass or legume in 
spring, as the yield during that season is usually negligible 
and the crop must compete with numerous summer weeds 
during the period when it produces but little top growth. 
It is a safe general rule, therefore, that perennials should 
be sown in the fall, but early enough that good root growth 
be established by winter. Spring seeding of such crops 
is desirable only where moisture conditions compel it 
or winter injury by cold is likely to be excessive. 

79. Depth of planting. — The depth to which seeds of 
a particular species should be planted cannot be stated 
arbitrarily nor based on any definite theory. Under 
natural conditions seeds fall on the surface of the ground 



SEEDS AND SEEDING 89 

and most of them germinate on or very near the surface. 
The percentage of mortaUty of such seeds is, however, 
very high, much greater than it is necessary to provide 
against in agriculture. 

The principal objects desired are to plant the seed 
deeply enough to germinate under average climatic con- 
ditions at the place, and not too deeply, to prevent the 
seedlings from reaching the surface. 

In general, small seeds must be planted shallow and 
large seeds may be planted deep. Some large seeds, like 
peas, may be planted as deep as 8 inches, but this is due 
to the fact that the young shoot does not carry the cotyle- 
dons with it. In the case of equally large bean seeds, 
where the cotyledons are raised out of the ground, such 
deep planting would be fatal. 

In sandy soils planting may be twice as deep as in 
clay soils, both to secure the necessary moisture, and 
because such soils offer less resistance to the developing 
seedling. 

80. Experimental results. — The best method of sowing 
any hay crop in any particular place can be determined 
only by direct trials. This involves experiments in rate 
of seeding, depth of planting, time of sowing, use of nurse 
crop, etc. The best method depends quite as much on 
the adaptations of the plant itself as upon local con- 
ditions. Thus, some grasses and legumes do not well 
endure shade, consequently the seeding of these with a 
nurse crop is inadvisable. 

The following experiments conducted at the Ontario 
Agricultural College illustrate how greatly different 
methods of seeding may affect the yield of the same and 
of different species of grasses and clovers. 

Two distinct experiments were performed, one from the 



90 



FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



autumn of 1896 and the spring of 1897 to the autumn of 
1898 ; the other from the autumn of 1899 and the spring 
of 1900 to the autumn of 1901. 

The table shows the average of the two experiments, of 
the yields obtained at one cutting, the second summer after 
seeding : — 





Tons op Hay to the Acre 


Crops 


Fall Sowing 


Spring Sowing 




With 
Winter 

Wheat 


No 
Nurse 
Crop 


With 

Oats 


No 
Nurse 
Crop 


Orchard-grass .... 
Meadow fescue 

Timothy 

Common red clover . . 
Alsike clover .... 
Lucerne 


T071S 

3.49 
2.12 
2.94 
3.07 
2.66 
3.65 


Tons 

4.20 
2.86 
3.44 
1.09 
.91 
1.42 


Tons 

4:A4: 

3.66 
3.27 
3.61 
2.47 
4.03 


Tons 

3.73 
3.64 
4.28 
4.1,8 
2.79 
4.17 


Average 3 grasses . . 
Average 3 clovers 


2.85 
3.13 


3.50 
1.14 


3.79 
3.37 


3.89 
3.71 



81. Nurse crops, — In sowing grass or clover seeds, 
it is a very common practice to sow them with a crop of 
small grain or, as is usually the case, with red clover, to 
sow the seed in spring on a field of fall-sown grain. When 
grass seed is thus sown with a grain crop, the latter is 
spoken of as a nurse crop. 

The advantages of a nurse crop are : — 

1 . To secure a greater return from the land the first year. 

2. To economize labor by making one seed bed answer 
for two crops. 

3. To check weeds from developing. 

4. To hold snow to prevent washing of the land. 



SEEDS AND SEEDING 91 

The disadvantages of a nurse crop, as far as the grass 
is concerned, are : — 

1. Weakening the grass by shading. 

2. Injuring the young grass when soil moisture is not 
sufficient for both. 

3. Requiring a higher rate of seeding of the grass. 
Wheat, rye, barley and oats are desirable as nurse 

crops, probably in the order named, but there are few 
comparative experimental data available. Oats shade 
the ground more than barley, and barley more than wheat 
or rye. The time of harvesting the nurse crop is also of 
some importance to the grass crop, as sudden exposure 
of the latter to heat and drought is very harmful. The 
water requirement of each of the four nurse crops is least 
for wheat, followed in order by barley, oats and rye. 



CHAPTER V 

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 

Success in the profitable rearing of herbivorous animals 
is nearly always conditioned on good grass. This applies 
almost as truly to the most specialized forms of animal 
husbandry as to the primitive wandering herdsman. The 
highest type of agriculture is in those regions where grass 
culture is most developed. Meadows usually supply the 
most economical feed that can be preserved. Pastures, 
whether temporary or permanent, furnish the cheapest 
means for maintaining farm animals that can be grown, 
and permit the utilization of land too poor or too rough to 
use for other farm crops. 

82. Meadow mixtures. — The practice of growing 
mixtures of grasses or legumes or both, is an old one 
antedating in agriculture the sowing of pure cultures. 
Originally grass seeds were gathered from mixed meadows, 
and hence pure sowings could not be made. In oriental 
countries, especially India, where labor is very cheap, 
all sorts of crops are still grown in mixtures, and the belief 
prevails generally that a larger total return is thus secured. 
The cost of harvesting each separately is so great that such 
mixed plantings are seldom made in Europe or America, 
and only where all of the plants in the mixture can be 
harvested at the same time, or where the harvesting of 
the one does not interfere with the further development 
of the other. 

92 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 93 

So far as hay plants are concerned, experience and 
experiments both show that as a rule larger yields are 
secured from mixtures than from pure cultures. Ex- 
ceptions are, however, found in such crops as alfalfa and 
sometimes Italian rye-grass, mainly because no other 
plants will coincide with either of these in producing 
several cuttings. 

Among the reasons why mixtures yield better as a rule 
than pure cultures are the following : — 

1. The diverse root habits of the different crops make 
their distribution through the soil more thorough. 

2. Their differing requirements do not make them 
direct competitors, but enable them more thoroughly 
to utilize the soluble substances of the soil. 

3. The average annual return can be made more nearly 
even over a longer period by including both short-lived, 
quick-growing plants, and long-lived plants. 

4. The loss by insects or disease is lessened, as most of 
these attack but a single plant species. Thus, pure cul- 
tures furnish, far better opportunities for their increase 
and spread than do mixed cultures. In mixtures, such 
losses are often confined to but a single species in the mix- 
ture ; and as this leaves more room for the others to de- 
velop, there is at least a partial compensation for the 
damage. Practically the same facts hold true if any of 
the species in the mixture are destroyed or injured by 
drought or other adverse weather conditions. 

5. The leaves and shoots of different grasses and legumes 
vary greatly in habit and in light requirement. Some 
low-growing species do well in the shade of taller species, 
and thus the total quantity of herbage is increased. 
Low-growing plants form the so-called " bottom grass " 
in contrast to the " top grass " of tall species. A mixture 



94 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



of the two is good practice and apparently good theory. 
Among the common " bottom " hay plants are blue-grass, 
redtop, sheep's fescue and the clovers ; typical " top 
grasses " are orchard-grass, tall oat-grass and timothy. 

6. Legumes probably aid the growth and increase the 
protein content of the non-legumes in the mixture. 

Besides the reasons which apparently affect the yield, 
mixtures afford a more varied and usually better feed, 
and mixtures of grasses and legumes are more easily cured 
than legumes alone. 

Data from various experiment stations showing the 
relative returns from mixtures and pure sowings are given 
in the accompanying table : — 

Table showing Hay Yields in Pounds to the Acre op 
Mixed Grasses compared to the Best Single Grass 



Grass or Mixture 



Timothy 

Red clover 

Tall oat-grass .... 

Alfalfa 

Redtop 

Timothy and mammoth 

clover 

Timothy and medium 

red clover .... 
Tall oat and alfalfa . 
Timothy and alfalfa 
Tall oat and mammoth 

clover 

Timothy and mammoth 

clover 

Brome and red clover 
Brome and alfalfa 
Brome, orchard-grass 

and red clover . 
Brome-grass, timothy 

and red clover . 
Brome and timothy 
Timothy and redtop 



Illinois 

Experiment 

Station 



4400 — 2 yr. 
4200 — 2 yr. 
5480 — 1 yr. 



3600 — 1 yr. 
5400 — 2 yr. 
5200 — 2 yr. 



Ontario 
Agricultu- 
ral College 



6940 — 7 yr. 
6620 — 6 yr. 
5520 — 7 yr. 



3580 



7 yr. 



8820 — 2 yr. 
8000 — 2 yr. 

7160 — 2 yr. 

7140 — 2 yr. 



Kansas 

Experiment 
Station 



4779 — 4 yr. 
5490 — 4 yr. 
1707 — 4 yr. 
7345 — 4 yr. 
3399 — 2 yr. 



5490 — 4 yr. 



4133 — 4 yr. 
5473 — 4 yr. 

3825 — 4 yr. 

3560 — 4 yr. 



Minnesota 
N. E. Experi- 
ment 
Station 



4340 — 1 yr. 
8000 — 1 yr. 



5260 — 1 yr. 



7820 — 1 yr. 



8480 — 1 yr. 
5160 — 1 yr. 
8740 — 1 yr. 



MEADOWS AND PASTUBES 95 

83. Composition of meadow mixtures. — Innumerable 
meadow mixtures have been recommended by writers, 
based partly on observation and partly on theoretical 
considerations. European authorities advise as a rule 
complex mixtures. They also advise a heavier rate of 
seeding where several or many grasses are mixed. Such 
complex mixtures have not found much favor in America 
as yet, either at the hands of experimenters or farmers. 

The principal objects desired in mixtures are to secure 
plants of varying habit adapted to the conditions under 
which they are to be grown, and to have them mature at 
about the same time. 

Important mixtures which are based both on sound 
experiment and abundant observations include the fol- 
lowing : — 

1. Timothy and red clover, the standard mixture for 
the timothy region on well-drained soils. Where red 
clover fails, it may be replaced with alsike, or both clovers 
may be used. Frequently redtop is added to the mixture. 

2. Redtop and alsike clover for low wet lands in the 
timothy region. If the land is not too wet, timothy may 
be added. Fowl meadow-grass is also well adapted to 
such soils. 

3. Orchard-grass, tall oat-grass and alsike clover. This 
mixture is especially desirable where timothy and red 
clover do not succeed well. Italian rye-grass may be 
added to this mixture to increase the yield of the first crop. 

4. For semi-humid regions brome and timothy or brome- 
and orchard-grass. 

5. Where alfalfa thrives, it makes good mixtures with 
timothy, tall oat, slender wheat or brome-grass. 

A complex mixture that has been recommended at the 
Ontario Agricultural College, particularly for pasturage, 



96 FORAGE PLANT.H AND THEIR CULTURE 

but also for hay, contains the following seeds in the 
amounts needed to the acre : — 

Alfalfa 5 pounds 

Alsike clover 2 pounds 

White clover 1 pound 

Trefoil 1 pound 

Orchard-grass 4 pounds 

Meadow fescue 4 pounds 

Tall oat-grass 3 pounds 

Timothy 2 pounds 

Meadow foxtail 2 pounds 

Total 24 pounds 

84. Treatment of hay meadows. — Hay meadows may 
be distinguished as temporary meadows where the lay 
is for 1 or 2 years and permanent meadows where the lay 
is for 3 years or an indefinite longer period. 

The yield on permanent meadows may usually be in- 
creased (1) by plowing or harrowing; (2) by occasional 
reseedings ; and (3) by the use of fertilizers. 

85. Scarifying old meadows. — The scarifying of an 
old meadow by harrowing in early spring with a disk or 
other harrow usually encourages a larger growth of grass. 
In some sections it must be done with judgment as other- 
wise the increased growth may be largely weeds. 

In the case of certain grasses with rootstocks like 
Bermuda- and Johnson-grass the field may be plowed and 
harrowed, the effect being a greatly increased crop of 
grass. The same method can be used with brome-grass, 
but more care must be used, as brome is more easily 
destroyed than the other two grasses. 

86. Reseeding old meadows. — It is rarely good practice 
to keep meadows for a long period of years even if fer- 
tilized annually. In time the proportion of weeds in- 
creases and often mosses and lichens become abundant. 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 97 

The latter are supposed to indicate a lack of lime, but 
they often remain in spite of liming. 

At the Massachusetts Experiment Station it was found 
that the yield on certain plots was greatly increased by 
replowing and reseeding without changing the amount 
of fertilizer applied. Thus on a plot fertilized annually 
with 5805 pounds of wood ashes to the acre the portion 
plowed and reseeded yielded 8546 pounds hay to the acre 
while that portion not replowed nor reseeded yielded but 
6243 pounds. On a plot fertilized annually with 8 tons of 
barnyard manure the part plowed and reseeded produced 
10,002 pounds hay to the acre in comparison with 5642 
pounds on the portion not reseeded. The only difference 
in the fertilizer application was that the manure was har- 
rowed in the plowed portion and top-dressed in the undis- 
turbed part. 

Another method is sometimes used by farmers, especially 
on land difficult to plow; namely, that of scattering a 
little new seed over the meadow each year, especially 
of such grasses and clovers which tend to disappear. 

87. Fertilizers for hay crops. — Most of the hay grown 
in the northeastern fourth of the United States and 
adjacent Canada is timothy and red clover, with a much 
smaller proportion of redtop, alsike and other plants. 
At least three-fourths of the total yield in this region is 
produced from a two years' lay grown in the five-course 
rotation of corn, oats, wheat, clover, timothy or some 
essentially similar rotation. In this rotation fertilizer is 
rarely applied to the hay crop, which can therefore obtain 
only the residues of fertilizers applied to the grain crops. 
With this system of agriculture the average yield of hay 
an acre for the region mentioned is according to census 
figures about 1.3 tons an acre. In this area a yield to be 

H 



98 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

considered good should reach at least 1.5 tons an acre 
and to be large 2 to 2.5 tons an acre. With heavy fer- 
tilizing yields of 5 to 6 tons an acre or even more have 
been secured. As a rule, the timothy region has ample 
rainfall ; so that the principal factor in limiting the hay 
yield is the fertility of the land. 

While larger hay yields can be obtained by the use of 
heavy applications of fertilizers, the practice of selling 
hay as a money crop has almost universally been con- 
demned by agricultural writers because a bulky crop con- 
tains so much nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, which 
is usually considered as selling that much of the fertility 
of the land. This conclusion is, however, based more on 
theoretical considerations than on any adequate basis 
of empirical data. 

The results of the long-continued rotation experiments 
at the Ohio Experiment Station show that the residues 
of fertilizers from the cereal crops will give as a rule a 
good increase in the crops of both clover and timothy, as 
compared to unfertilized plots. 

From the results secured with fertilizers applied to 
grasses it is an open question whether it would not be 
more profitable to apply the fertilizers to this crop than 
to the hoed or small grain crops. Lyon and Morgan in 
discussing this problem advance the following reasons 
why it would apparently be better to apply the fertilizers 
to the hay crop in New York : — 

" (1) Fertilizers applied to grass increase not only the 
growth of that part of the crop cut for hay, but also the 
roots and sod which are plowed under the soil and in de- 
composing add to the soil productiveness. It seems, there- 
fore, that anything that aids the growth of timothy would 
help the grain, while the reverse is not true in the same sense. 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 99 

'' (2) The hay crop is generally the crop which in a rota- 
tion with grain brings the largest financial returns in 
New York State. If a certain application of manures 
increases in the same ratio the yields of hay and grain, 
the value of the increase in the former crop would be 
greater than that of the latter. It should pay best to 
increase the crop that is worth the most, provided the 
cost of the increase is the same in both cases. 

^' (3) Grass is peculiarly sensitive to readily available 
nitrogen in fertilizers. Grain crops are not benefited 
to the same extent by this form of nutrient. As most 
commercial fertilizers contain some more or less readily 
available nitrogen, much of which may be carried off in 
the drainage water and thus be lost to crops after the year 
it is applied, it would seem to be advisable to add this to 
the crop that it will benefit most. On the other hand, 
the phosphorus and potassium contained in the fertilizer 
are not removed in large amounts by the drainage water 
and the unused parts remain in the soil to benefit the 
succeeding grain crops." 

Whether or not it is best to apply the fertilizers to the 
hay crop or elsewhere in the rotation, there can be no 
doubt that the judicious fertilizing of hay crops is often 
very profitable, especially where fertilizers can be obtained 
cheaply and where the good city markets for the hay are 
convenient. 

Well-rotted barnyard manure invariably increases the 
crop of hay greatly, but in the absence of this material com- 
parable results may be secured with commercial fertilizers. 

The results of many fertilizer trials on mixed grasses 
and legumes, both in Europe and in America, lead to the 
general conclusion that nitrogenous fertilizers tend to 
increase the proportion of grass herbage, while phosphate 



100 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

and potash fertilizers stimulate the growth of legumes 
particularly. Lime is far more pronounced in its effect 
on legumes than on non-legumes. 

At the Massachusetts Experiment Station it has been 
observed that a top dressing of muriate of potash to a 
mixed plot of timothy, redtop and clover caused a re- 
markable increase in the proportion of clover. The 
further work at this station showed that sulfate of potash 
was far more efficient in this respect than the muriate. 

For very heavy yields of grass a larger application an- 
nually of a complete fertilizer is necessary. Thus Wheeler 
at the Rhode Island Experiment Station was able to se- 
cure yields of hay averaging over 4 tons per acre for 3 years 
by using the following amount of fertilizers to the acre : — 

350 pounds nitrate of soda. 

500 pounds acid phosphate. 

200 pounds muriate of potash. 

It is questionable whether such heavy applications are 
most profitable in the long run, especially as in seasons 
of insufficient moisture the full benefit of the fertilizer 
cannot be secured. 

On the basis of the Rhode Island work Wheeler recom- 
mends an annual application to each acre of : — 

400 to 500 pounds acid phosphate. 

300 to 350 pounds muriate of potash. 

300 to 350 pounds nitrate of soda. 

From the results secured at the Massachusetts Experi- 
ment Station, Brooks suggests that the hay crop in rota- 
tions be top-dressed about May 1 with the following 
mixture of fertilizer to the acre : — 

Nitrate of soda 175 to 200 pounds 

Acid phosphate 50 to 100 pounds 

High grade sulfate of potash ..... 50 to 100 pounds 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 101 

If a high percentage of clover is desired in the hay the 
nitrate of soda should be omitted, and the following 
applied to the acre : — 

Acid phosphate 100 pounds 

Basic slag meal 400 pounds 

High grade sulfate of potash 150 to 200 pounds 

For permanent meadows producing market hay com- 
posed largely of grass, Brooks recommends with much 
confidence the use to the acre of the following amounts of 
fertilizer : — 

Nitrate of soda 150 to 250 pounds 

Basic slag meal 300 to 400 pounds 

High grade sulfate of potash 75 to 100 pounds 

Top-dressings of nitrate of soda alone are not considered 
desirable for a longer period than two years. 

On peat marsh soils in Wisconsin the yield of hay from 
a mixture of timothy and alsike yielded without treatment 
2727 pounds hay an acre. An application of 275 pounds 
acid phosphate an acre increased the yields on two plots 
to 5015 and 5158 pounds respectively. Sulfate of potash, 
100 pounds to the acre, increased the yields on two plots 
to 4588 and 4781 pounds respectively. When both ferti- 
lizers were used together in the amounts above indicated 
the results were not as good as the phosphate alone. 

At the West Virginia Experiment Station the applica- 
tion of both barnyard manure and commercial fertilizers 
greatly increased the yields of timothy. On the larger 
part of a 4-acre field that yielded 1 ton hay or less a year 
the average application for 6 years of 17 loads of manure 
brought up the yield to the acre from 3775 pounds the 
first year to 11,315 pounds the sixth year, or an average 



102 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

of 8044 pounds annually for the 6 years. Commercial 
fertilizer composed of nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and 
sulfate of potash gave an average yield of 6380 pounds 
hay per acre, the average annual cost of the fertilizer per 
acre being $11.76. In both cases the increased yield gave 
a large profit. 

88. Top-dressing for aftermath or rowen. — Fertilizing 
meadows to secure a larger aftermath or rowen is seldom 
practiced. From experiments at the Massachusetts 
Experiment Station Brooks considers that fertilizing 
grass meadows with 150 to 200 pounds nitrate of 
soda immediately after the first crop is removed is 
profitable. 

89. Acreage of improved pasture in the United States. 
— Statistics and other data relative to American pasture 
crops are very unsatisfactory. According to the thirteenth 
United States census, the crops where acreage was reported 
occupied 68.3 per cent of the improved land. The im- 
proved land not occupied by crops included pasture land, 
fallow land, land in orchards whose acreage was not re- 
ported and land in house yards and barnyards. 

As both fallow lands and the stubble and aftermath of 
various crops furnishes considerable temporary pasturage, 
it is conservative to consider 30 per cent of the improved 
land as pasture, but probably not much over 20 per cent of 
the improved land is permanent or long lay pasture. If this 
be true, the acreage of permanent improved pastures is 
one-third greater than that devoted to " hay and forage " 
and one-half as great as that of corn. 

90. Area of wild pasture in the United States. — From 
the census figures of 1909 the following table is compiled, 
assuming that 20 per cent of the improved farm land area 
is pasture and that half of the unimproved land is pastur- 



3IEAD0WS AND PASTURES 103 

able. According to these estimates the area of unim- 
proved pasture lands is about 4 times as large as the 
improved pastures : — 



Class of Land 



Per cent op 
Total Area 



Farm land .... 
Improved farm land 
Improved pastures . . 
Non-farm lands 
Unimproved pasture land 



46.2 
25.1 
9.2 
53.8 
37.4 



91. Most important tame pasture plants. — The most 
important grazing plants on improved American pastures 
are Kentucky blue-grass, redtop, white clover and Ber- 
muda. Of less importance are timothy, orchard-grass, 
Canada blue-grass, red clover, alfalfa, alsike, lespedeza 
and crab-grass. 

As to the relative value of these, there are no data 
available to make accurate estimates. Kentucky blue- 
grass is by far the most valuable pasture grass in the North 
and Bermuda-grass in the South. White clover and red- 
top are of importance over most of North America except 
the semi-arid regions and the extreme South. 

Scaling the principal tame permanent pasture grasses 
on a basis of 100, the following estimate is made of their 
relative importance in America : — ■ 

Kentucky blue-grass . . 40 Alsike clover 3 

Redtop 10 Canada blue-grass ... 3 

White clover 8 Orchard-grass 2 

Bermuda-grass .... 8 Johnson-grass 2 

Timothy 8 Lespedeza 2 

Red clover 4 Crab-grass 2 

Alfalfa 4 All others 4 



104 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

These are but rough estimates, and probably minimize 
rather than exaggerate the relative importance of the first 
five. 

92. Palatability of pasture grasses. — One method by 
which the relative palatability of pasture grasses may be 
ascertained is to permit animals to have free access to 
plots of different grasses and then to note their preferences. 

At the Washington Experiment Station horses pre- 
ferred brome-grass to orchard and red clover mixed, to 
tall oat-grass and to a mixture of 11 standard grasses. 

At the Idaho Experiment Station sheep showed the 
following order of choice : 1. orchard-grass ; 2. meadow 
fescue ; 3. brome ; 4. perennial rye-grass ; 5. tall oat- 
grass. 

In tests at Cornell Experiment Station cattle exhibited 
the following order of preference : brome, Kentucky 
blue-grass, meadow fescue, timothy, orchard-grass, red- 
top. 

The marked preference of cattle for brome was also 
shown at the Ottawa, Canada, Experimental Farm, where 
cattle grazed brome close to the ground, while scarcely 
touching mixed timothy and red clover. 

93. Pasture yield as determined by number of cuttings. 
— At the Michigan Experiment Station a plot of orchard- 
grass cut 7 times with a lawn mower yielded 29 pounds 
of dry hay and a similar plot cut 4 times 60.9 pounds. 
A third plot not cut until in bloom gives 112 pounds of 
hay. 

In a similar experiment with timothy the yield for 
8 cuttings was 15.76 pounds, and for a single cutting where 
in bloom, 172 pounds. 

Extensive investigations of this sort have been con- 
ducted by Zavitz at the Ontario Agricultural College from 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 



105 



whose data the following table is compiled. The signifi- 
cance of figures thus obtained is not very clear. The 
total yield is invariably less than if the crop be cut 1 to 
3 times. This can only be interpreted as indicating that 
the yield of pastures is less than that of meadows, but 
what relation the yield from 6 or more clippings is to 
that eaten by animals on pasture continuously is not 
evident : — 

Tons of Green Herbage to the Acre at Each of Six 
Cuttings per Annum. Average of Four Years for 
Grasses, Three Years for Legumes 





First 


Second 


Third 


Fourth 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Total 


Crop 


Cut- 


Cut- 


Cut- 


Cut- 


Cut- 


Cut- 


Per 




ting 


ting 


ting 


ting 


ting 


ting 


Annum 




Tous 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tous 


Tall oat-grass 


5.93 


.83 


1.59 


1.23 


1.33 


.87 


11.8 


Orchard-grass 


4.34 


1.71 


.92 


1.30 


1.05 


1.40 


10.7 


Meadow fescue 


4.60 


1.72 


.69 


1.09 


.84 


.61 


9.6 


Timothy . . . 


4.87 


1.71 


.58 


1.11 


.62 


.49 


9.4 


Perennial rye 


4.10 


1.49 


.61 


.78 


.90 


.80 


8.7 


Kentucky blue . 


3.76 


1.04 


.73 


.58 


.58 


.58 


7.5 


Redtop . . . 


2.71 


1.03 


.62 


.67 


.44 


.34 


5.8 


Alfalfa . . . 


8.73 


3.06 


2.70 


3.62 


1.56 


1.27 


20.9 


Red clover 


10.88 


1.10 


2.37 


3.39 


1.52 


1.15 


20.4 


White clover 


7.35 


2.35 


1.95 


1.91 


2.08 


1.63 


17.3 


Alsike .... 


8.22 


.28 


3.06 


1.41 


2.56 


.93 


16.5 



94. Pasture mixtures. — There is only one safe rule 
to follow in regard to grasses and clovers to be planted 
for permanent pastures ; namely, use those which experi- 
ence has shown hold the ground most tenaciously. It is 
desirable to use in addition, however, one or more quick 
growing grasses to furnish pasturage while the slower 
growing ones are developing. 



106 FOBAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

In England excellent results have been obtained by 
planting complex mixtures containing long and short- 
lived, and shallow and deep-rooted plants. No such 
mixtures have, as yet, proved profitable in America. 

For the humid portions of America the best permanent 
pasture grasses come in, for the most part, spontaneously. 
These are, in the timothy region : 1. Kentucky blue-grass 
and white clover for fertile, moist soils ; 2. redtop for low, 
wet soils ; 3. Canada blue-grass, recltop and white clover 
for upland soils ; in the cotton region : 4. Bermuda-grass, 
lespedeza and bur clover for clayey lands ; 5. carpet- 
grass for sandy coastal lands. 

The lines of division indicated are by no means absolute, 
but the pasture mixtures proposed by various investigators 
generally recognize the fundamental importance of most 
of the ten species named. As more or less temporary 
elements, other seeds should be included in seeding new 
pasture, as follows : — 

Where the soil and the region are adapted to Kentucky 
blue-grass, add white clover, timothy and either Italian 
or perennial rye-grass. Meadow fescue is also desirable 
in many places. 

Where the soil is wet and the region adapted to redtop, 
add white clover and alsike clover. 

Where the soil is poor upland in the north, use redtop, 
Canada blue-grass and white clover. 

Where Bermuda-grass thrives, add lespedeza, white 
clover, bur clover and Italian rye-grass. 

Where carpet-grass predominates, Italian rye-grass may 
prove valuable for temporary pasture in winter. 

In addition to the grasses mentioned, orchard-grass 
is always desirable because it furnishes the earliest pas- 
turage, and southward tall oat-grass is very useful. On 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 107 

the sandy lands along the coast northward, sheep's fescue 
will often grow to the practical exclusion of other grasses. 

Attempts to establish permanent pastures of other 
grasses in places where one or more of those mentioned 
above are aggressive have rarely been successful. 

95. Treatment of permanent pastures. — The treat- 
ment of pastures to secure the maximum return is a subject 
upon which much writing has been done, but in America 
at least but little experimentation. 

The first comprehensive experiment of this kind is that 
being carried on at the Virginia Experiment Station, but 
no results of which have yet been published. The object 
of these experiments is to determine the relative merits 
of different treatments : — 

1. Continuous light grazing. 

2. Continuous heavy grazing. 

3. Alternate light grazing, without harrowing. 

4. Alternate light grazing, with harrowing. 

5. Alternate heavy grazing, without harrowing. 

6. Alternate heavy grazing, with harrowing. 

It is only by such experiments that quantitative results 
can be obtained that will definitely determine the best 
methods of treating permanent pastures. 

From observations there is strong reason to believe 
that heavy grazing, but not overgrazing, is preferable to 
light grazing. In any pasture, unless overgrazed, it may 
be observed that the animals keep the grass closely grazed 
in definite areas and neglect the remainder. The animals 
prefer the short, fresh growth and avoid the older leaves 
and stems, unless driven by hunger. Farmers usually 
prefer to graze their pastures lightly so as to have a sur- 
plus in case of emergency — such as periods of drought — 
but it would seem wiser to utilize the pastures more fully 



108 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

and provide against emergencies by having a reserve of 
other feed. 

Among methods that have been recommended to im- 
prove pastures are : — • 

1. Sowing a Uttle seed each year. 

2. Light harrowing, especially with a chain drag. 

3. Mowing the weeds in time to prevent their seeding. 

4. Top-dressing with manure or other fertilizers. 

On account of the relatively small return from pastures, 
the amount that can be spent profitably in improving them 
is small, often not more than one dollar an acre a year. 
With this limitation in mind, the first three methods of 
improvement are with little doubt sound, but fertilizers 
can usually be applied more profitably elsewhere than in 
pastures. Seeding on pastures where the turf is dense 
and the weeds few is not advisable. As may easily be 
observed, the sod in early spring on most pastures does 
not make a complete cover, but the vacant spaces often 
occupy one-fourth to one-half the ground. Where this 
is the case, it is probable that a light scattering of seed in 
very early spring is desirable. 

96. Pasturing meadows. — The aftermath or rowen of 
grass meadows is very commonly used for pasturage in 
the fall. If the grazing be light, the probabilities are 
that the succeeding year's crop is not injuriously affected, 
but no critical experiments on this subject have been 
reported. 

Pasturing meadows in early spring is, however, generally 
considered to be harmful to the succeeding hay crop. 

97. Carrying capacity. — The carrying capacity of a 
pasture is the number of animals of a particular kind that 
a unit of area will support for a definite period. On per- 
manent pastures and on range lands this is usually stated 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 109 

in terms of animals to the acre for the grazing season. 
Thus, the carrying capacity of much of the western range 
lands is 1 steer to 100 acres. The carrying capacity of the 
best blue-grass pasture is 1 steer to about 2.5 acres, and for 
the best Bermuda and lespedeza pasture in the South 2 
steers to 1 acre. In the last two examples the period 
is understood to be that of the growing season, but on 
range lands the period is sometimes meant to cover the 
whole year. 

98. Temporary pastures. — A temporary pasture is 
one designed to carry stock for only a short period. Tem- 
porary pastures are usually sown to annual plants. 
Sometimes such sowings are arranged so as to have a 
succession of temporary pastures. This is often desirable 
in raising hogs, but is also used with sheep and dairy 
cows. 

In pasturing such crops, there is less waste by trampling 
if the area to be grazed each day is inclosed by hurdles 
or other temporary fencing. This also insures that the 
animals secure about the same feed each day, as otherwise 
they will eat the more palatable portions of the plants 
first. 

A system of temporary pastures requires accurate knowl- 
edge in regard to the date a crop must be sown to be 
pastured at a particular time, the approximate amount 
of feed an acre will provide and the length of time 
during which the crop may be grazed. 

Such a system is essentially identical with a soiling sys- 
tem (Par. 36), but it permits the use of some crops not 
adapted to the latter, such as chufas, peanuts and sweet 
potatoes. 

99. Temporary pasture crop systems for hogs. — Pas- 
ture crop systems for feeding hogs continuously have been 



110 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



devised by various investigators. Annuals are best suited 
to this purpose not only because the period during which 
they can be used and the feed they will produce may be 
quite accurately predicted, but because the planting of 
perennials in small patches is often objectionable. If fields 
of perennials like clover or alfalfa are available they may 
well be utilized, however, in some systems. Two systems 
of temporary pastures are here given as examples, one 
adapted to the North and the other to the South. 

Duggar, at the Alabama Experiment Station, on the 
basis of extensive experiments suggests the following suc- 
cession of pasture crops for pigs in that state : — 

System op Pasture Crops for Pigs. Alabama 



Crops 


When Sown 


When Pastured 


Rape 

Chufas 

Rape 

Vetch and oats . . . 
Vetch and oats . . . 
Crimson clover . . . 
Oats and wheat . . . 

Rape 

Turf oats 

Sorghum 

Cowpeas 

Spanish peanuts . . . 

Cowpeas 

Sweet potatoes . . . 

Sorghum 

Chufas 

Rape 


Fall 

Spring 

Fall 

Fall 

Fall 

Fall 

Fall 

Spring 

Spring 

Spring 

Spring 

Spring 

Spring 

Spring 

Spring 

Spring 

Fall 


January and February 

January and February 

March to April 15 

March to April 15 

April 

April 

April and May 

May and June 

June 

July and August 

July and August 

September to November 

September to November 

September to November 

September to November 

December 

December 



Fisher at the Indiana Experiment Station has arranged 
the following data, from which a system of temporary 
pastures for hogs in that state may be selected : — ■ 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 111 



Pasture for Hogs by Months. Indiana 



r 









Approxi- 


No. OF 








mate Length 


100- 


Month to 
Pasture 


Name of Crop 


Date of Sowing 


OF Time 
Crop 

AFFORDS 

Pasture 


POUND 

Hogs 

PER 

Acre 


April 


Rye 


August or September 


Six weeks 


10-15 


May . . . 


Oats 


March 20 to April 10 


Six weeks 


8-12 




Oats and rape 


March 20 to April 10 


Four weeks 


12-20 




Oats and field peas 


March 20 to April 10 


Four weeks 


12-20 




Rape 


April 1-10 


Four weeks 


12-15 


June . 


Rape and oats 


April 10-30 


Four weeks 


15-20 




Field peas and oats 


April 10-30 


Four weeks 


12-15 




Rape 


April 10-30 


Four weeks 


12-20 


July . . . 


Rape 


April 1-10 and 
grazed down in 










May 


Four weeks 


12-20 




Rape 


May 1-20 


Four weeks 


12-20 




Clover, red or mam- 


March 25 to April 


Remainder 






moth 


10 without nurse 
crop 


of season 


8-10 




Sorghum 


May 10-20 


Four weeks 


15-20 


August . 


Clover, red or mam- 


Spring sown 


Remainder 






moth 




of season 


8-10 




Rape 


April 10-30 and 
grazed down in 
June 


Four weeks 


12-20 




Rape 


June 1-15 


Four weeks 


12-20 




Sorghum 


May 20-30 


Four weeks 


15-20 




Soybeans or covsTDeas 


May 20 to June 1 


Six weeks 


12-18 


September 


Clover, red or mam- 


Spring sown 


Remainder 






moth 




of season 


8-10 




Soy beans or cow- 


May 20 to June 15 


Six weeks 


12-18 




peas 










Rape 


Second or third 
growth 


Four weeks 


12-20 




Rape 


June 20 to July 10' 


Four weeks 


12-20 




Pumpkins 


May 15 to June 15 


Fed in lots 






Sorghum 


May 20 to June 15 


Fed in lots 




October , . 


Clover, red or mam- 


Spring sown 


Remainder 






moth 




of season 


8-10 




Rape 


Same as September 


Four weeks 


12-20 




Rye 


August 1-30 


Remainder 
of season 


8-10 




Soybeans or cow- 


June 1 to July 15 


Four weeks 


12-20' 




peas 









112 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

100. Bloating or hoven, — Ruminant animals are often 
subject to bloating when pastured on such crops as alfalfa, 
red clover or rape. Sainfoin and lespedeza are said 
never to cause bloating, but most succulent legumes will 
probably cause the trouble. 

Among the prevention measures that have been sug- 
gested are the following : — 

1. Do not turn the cattle into the pasture when it is 
wet with dew or rain, or the cattle very hungry. 

2. In pasturing rape have an abundance of salt avail- 
able to the animals. 

3. Have a supply of hay or straw or a grass pasture 
available to the animals. It is said they will instinctively 
turn to the grass or hay when bloat threatens. 

Should bloating occur, several remedies are usually 
at hand which will afford material relief. A large bit, 
the diameter of a pitchfork handle, may be tied in the 
mouth ; a piece of rubber tubing may be passed through 
the mouth to the first stomach ; or, as a last resort, the 
animal may be tapped to allow the escape of gas. For 
this purpose a trocar, such as is used by veterinary sur- 
geons, is best ; but in the absence of this, a small-bladed 
knife may be used to make the incision about 6 inches 
in front of and sHghtly below the left hip bone. A straw 
or quill may be used to permit the escape of gas. Care 
should be taken not to allow the straw or quill to work 
down out of sight into the incision. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE STATISTICS OF FORAGE CROPS 

Statistics regarding forage crops are instructive to the 
agronomist in showing the relative importance and geograph- 
ical distribution of each crop reported upon. The data 
from successive censuses also disclose the progress or re- 
gression which a crop may have made. Unfortunately 
only the principal crops are included in the returns. The 
relative importance of the various forage in different coun- 
tries varies so greatly that the statistical returns are not 
directly comparable, as a rule. 

101. Classification of crops in statistical returns. ^ 
In the Thirteenth United States Census, 1909, the cereal, 
seed and forage crops are thus classified : cereals in- 
clude corn, oats, wheat, barley, buckwheat, rye, rice, 
emmer and spelt, kafir and milo. " Other grains and 
seeds " include beans, peas, peanuts, flaxseed, grass seeds, 
flower seeds and vegetable seeds. " Hay and forage " 
include all crops cut for hay and fodder, excluding the 
cereals, — except such as are cut for hay, — and also ex- 
cluding improved pastures. 

In considering this classification of crops, it needs to 
be pointed out that under " cereals " is included a vast 
amount of produce other than grain utilized as forage. 
Thus, the h'^rbage of the corn crop, whether preserved as 
stover, sila;',e or pulled fodder, is used purely as forage, 
I 113 



114 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

and indeed forms an important percentage of the food of 
farm animals. It is safe to estimate the value of the herbage 
of the corn plant at about 50 per cent of the grain, assuming 
that all the corn is allowed to mature. As a matter of 
fact, a considerable and increasing amount is preserved as 
silage. A small part of the corn crop is reported under 
the item " Coarse Forage." 

Of kafir corn and other grain sorghums, probably 75 per 
cent is harvested entire and thus used as forage. 

On the Pacific Coast much wheat and barley is harvested 
as hay, and throughout the country more or less rye is 
similarly used, but all this is included under forage as 
*' Grains Cut Green." The straw of small grains, espe- 
cially that of oats, has considerable value as forage. 

In the same way the straw of cowpeas, Canada and 
garden peas, soybeans and other leguminous seed crops 
has also a considerable value as forage. 

The bearing of these facts is that the relative importance 
of grain production to forage production is necessarily 
somewhat inaccurate on account of the classification, the 
statistics exaggerating the importance of the first, and 
diminishing that of the latter. 

In the Census of Canada, forage crops are included 
under 8 items ; namely. Hay and clover ; Alfalfa ; Corn 
and forage ; Other forage crops ; Mangolds ; Sugar Beets ; 
Turnips ; Other field roots. The item of " Other forage 
crops " includes mainly the small grains, either alone or in 
mixture, cut for hay or for green feed. 

102. Forage crops in general, United States, 1909. — 
In the accompanying table appear the statistics of the 
Thirteenth United States Census showing the relative 
importance of forage crops in the different sections of the 
United States, and in the eleven states wh ch lead in 



THE STATISTICS OF FORAGE CROPS 



115 



forage production. (Compare Fig. 8.) The data are 
tabulated to show percentage of total and of improved 
land occupied by forage crops, and average yield and value 
to the acre : — 



Statistics of Forage Crops, United States, 1909 





Per cent 


Per cent 


Average 


Average 


Division 


OF Land in 


OP Im- 


Yield 


Value to 


United 


proved 


to the 


the Acre 




States 


Land 


Acre 1909 


1909 








Tons 




United States .... 


100.0 


15.1 


1.35 


$11.40 


New England . . . 


5.3 


52.3 


1.23 


15.57 


Middle Atlantic . . 


11.8 


29.1 


1.32 


15.31 


East North Central . 


20.4 


16.6 


1.38 


12.52 


West North Central . 


37.9 


16.7 


1.33 


7.71 


South Atlantic . . . 


4.0 


5.9 


1.02 


13.25 


East South Central . 


3.4 


5.7 


1.03 


11.92 


West South Central . 


4.5 


5.6 


1.03 


9.09 


Mountain .... 


6.9 


31.3 


1.73 


13.38 


Pacific 


5.8 


19.1 


1.73 


17.69 


Iowa 


7.0 


17.1 


1.55 


11.76 


New York .... 


7.0 


34.0 


1.40 


15.34 


Nebraska .... 


6.3 


18.5 


1.28 


7.02 


Kansas 


5.5 


13.2 


1.50 


8.09 


Minnesota . . , . 


5.5 


20.1 


1.53 


6.77 


Missouri 


5.0 


14.8 


1.13 


9.33 


South Dakota . . . 


4.8 


21.7 


1.06 


4.44 


Illinois 


4.6 


11.9 


1.30 


12.11 


Ohio 


4.6 


17.2 


1.37 


12.81 


Pennsylvania . . . 


4.3 


24.4 


1.19 


14.77 


Wisconsin . . . . 


4.3 


25.9 


1.62 


13.27 



These figures for hay and forage crops, not including 
pastures, are also compared with other important crops. 
The acreage of 72,280,776 acres was 37.8 per cent of that of 
all cereal crops. It was 73.5 per cent of the acreage 



116 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



devoted to corn, but much larger than that of any other 
cereal crop. It was 15.1 per cent of all the improved 
land in the country, but this includes a considerable area 
of land, especially west of the Mississippi River, on which 
hay is cut, but which has never been plowed. It will 
also be noted that over one-third of the hay crop was in 
the West North Central Division ; namely, Minnesota, 




/o ro 20 
20 -h 



Fig. 8. — Map showing percentage of cultivated land in forage crops, 

1909-1910. 



Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska 
and Kansas. Over one-fifth of the crop was in the East 
North Central Division ; namely, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Michigan and Wisconsin. These two groups of states 
produce nearly three-fifths of the hay crop of the country. 
The Middle Atlantic States — New York, Pennsylvania 
and New Jersey — produce nearly 12 per cent of the crop. 
The three groups of states together have 70 per cent of 



THE STATISTICS OF FORAGE CROPS 117 

the total United States acreage, and nearly as great a 
percentage of total production of forage crops. 

The states with largest acreage are Iowa and New 
York, each with over 5,000,000 acres ; Nebraska, with 
over 4,000,000 acres ; Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, South 
Dakota, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin, 
each with over 3,000,000 acres. 

103. Hay and forage by classes, United States, 1909. — 
In the accompanying table is shown the acreage of the 
different classes of forage crops grown in the United States 
in 1909, as determined by the Thirteenth Census. The 
acreage of corn, the principal American crop, and largely 
used as forage both as roughage and as grain, is added for 
comparison. Corn roughage is economically comparable 
to hay made from small grains, but it should be borne in 
mind tliat much small grain straw — especially of oats — 
is also fed as roughage. In the census table several of the 
categories include more than one crop as regards the plant 
actually grown. Thus, " Grains Cut Green " include 
oats, rye, wheat, barley and emmer; ''Coarse Forage'' 
covers corn and sorghums and similar plants cut for fod- 
der or silage ; " Other tame or cultivated grasses " include 
all hay grasses and legumes except timothy, red clover, 
alfalfa and millet. 

Timothy and clover. — Perhaps the most striking thing 
about this table is the preponderating importance of 
timothy and clover, alone or mixed. The two plants 
constitute one-half of the total acreage of American forage 
crops, even if the 17,000,000 acres of wild hay meadows 
are included. Excluding these wild meadows timothy and 
clover constitute over three-fourths of the acreage of hay 
and forage crops. No figures are available for the relative 
importance of timothy and clover each considered alone, 



118 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

but from various sources of information it is probable 
that there is about 3 times as much timothy as clover. 

Corn. — Notwithstanding the high importance of 
timothy and clover the fact must not be overlooked that 
the greatest amount of roughage is produced by corn. In 
the forms of stover, silage and pulled fodder, the herbage 
of probably 90 per cent of the corn crop is utilized as 
feed. On the whole, it is conservative to place the 
average yield of dry edible fodder from corn at about 
one ton per acre. 

Alfalfa. — The area of this crop approximates five 
million acres. Due to the fact that this crop can be cut 
two or more times in a season the average yield is con- 
siderably higher than other hay plants. Ninety-five per 
cent of the acreage is west of the Mississippi. 

Grains cut green. — In semi-aricl regions and on poor soils 
in humid regions, small grains are often cut for hay, the 
total acreage of these harvested in the United States in 
1909 being nearly equal to that of alfalfa. In the humid 
regions oats and rye are most often utilized in this way; 
in California, and to a less extent in other Pacific States, 
barley is a common hay crop ; in wheat regions it is a 
frequent practice to get the fields ready for harvesting 
the grain by cutting the marginal portion for haj^ Three- 
fourths of the grain hay is cut west of the Mississippi. 

Coarse forage. — This term includes mainly corn and 
sorghum cut green for fodder or silage. 

Millet. — The different varieties of foxtail millet are 
much grown in the northern portion of the great plains, 
over half of the acreage being from this area. Elsewhere, 
especially in the South, it is sown to obtain a quick crop of 
hay. 

Wild, salt or prairie grasses. — The states in which 



THE STATISTICS OF FOB AGE CROPS 



119 



Table showing Average Production and Relative Impor- 
tance OF Hay Forage Crops, United States, 1909 











Percentage 




Total 


Yield 


Total 


OF Total Hay 


Name of Crop 


Acreage 


TO THE 

Acre 


Production 


AND Forage 
Production 




Acres 


Tons 


Tons 


-- 


Corn 


98,382,665 


1. 


98,382,665 




Oat straw . . . 


35,159,441 


.6 


21,095,665 




Wheat straw . . 


44,262,592 








Barley straw 


7,698,706 








Rye straw . 


2,195,561 








Total hay and for- 










age .... 


72,280,776 


1.35 


97,453,735 


100 


Timothy i . . . 


24,457,584 


1.22 


30,359,698 


31.2 


Red clover ^ 


12,274,454 


1.29 


15,532,602 


15.9 


Alfalfa .... 


4,704,146 


2.52 


11,859,881 


12.2 


Wheat 

Rye 

Oats 












for hay 


4,324,878 


1.24 


5,367,292 


5.5 


Barley 












Other tame grasses 


4,218,957 


0.99 


4,166,772 


4.3 


Sorghums 


2,079,242 


1.5 


3,118,863 


3.2 


Mihet .... 


1,117,769 


1.38 


1,546,533 


1.6 


Cowpea . . . 


1,100,000 


1 


1,100,000 


1.1 


Redtop 2 ... 


800,000 


1 


800,000 


.8 


Kentucky blue-grass 


800,000 


1 


800,000 


.8 


Alsike^ . . . 


500,000 


1 


500,000 


.5 


Bermuda-grass - 


400,000 


1 


400,000 


.4 


Johnson-grass - 


400,000 


1 


400,000 


.4 


Orchard-grass ^ 


300,000 


1 


300,000 


.3 


Crab-grass - . . 


300,000 


1 


300,000 


.3 


Canada peas . . 


250,000 


1 


250,000 


.3 


Brome .... 


100,000 


1 


100,000 


.1 


All others . . . 


600,000 


1 


600,000 


.6 


Wild grasses . . 


17,186,522 


1.07 


18,383,574 


18.9 



1 In the production figures for timothy and for clover, half of the 
production of timothy and clover mixed has been credited to each plant. 

2 This acreage has been estimated from that of " Other Tame Grasses." 



120 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

natural or wild hay is most largely harvested are the follow- 
ing : Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota 
and Kansas. It is a surprising fact that the total acreage 
is over one-half of that of timothy and clover combined, 
and nearly one-fourth of the total hay and forage 
acreage. 

Other tame or cultivated grasses. — The relatively small 
importance of all other hay grasses to timothy is striking, 
their total acreage being less than one-fourth that of 
timothy. These figures must, however, be considered 
with due allowance, as some of these grasses are often 
mixed with timothy, either being sown or appearing spon- 
taneously. The most important of the " other tame 
grasses " are redtop, orchard-grass, brome, Kentucky 
blue-grass, Johnson-grass, Bermuda-grass and crab-grass. 

Root forage. — Root crops for forage primarily are 
relatively very unimportant in the United States. They 
are seldom grown where field corn or sorghum thrive well. 
For this reason they are utilized mainly in the Mountain 
and Pacific States. Besides the roots grown for forage 
a large amount of feed results from the refuse of sugar 
beets after the sugar is extracted. This is fed fresh, or 
preserved by drying or by ensiling. 

104. Forage statistics for Canada. — The census statis- 
tics of forage crops for Canada are compiled under different 
headings from those used in the United States Census, but 
in the main they are comparable. The item " Hay and 
Clover " in the former comprises both the " timothy and 
clover" and ''other cultivated grasses" in the latter. 
'' Other forage crops " includes the same crops as " grains 
cut green." It will be noted that corn is relatively unim- 
portant in Canada except in Ontario, and that root crops 
are far more largely grown than in the United States. 



THE STATISTICS OF FORAGE CROPS 



121 



Acreage of Forage Crops, Canada, 1910 





Hay and 
Clover 


Alfalfa 


Corn and 
Forage 


Other 
Forage 
Crops 


Roots 


Ontario .... 
Quebec .... 
New Brunswick . 
Nova Scotia . 
Prince Edward . 
Manitoba . . 
Alberta . . . 
Saskatchewan 
British Columbia 


Acres 

3,216,514 
3,224,122 
625,911 
542,007 
215,083 
137,671 
149,973 
37,694 
133,217 


Acres 

45,625 

4,046 

83 

10 

2 

539 

2,592 

182 

3,741 


Acres 

245,048 

41,082 

235 

561 

191 

4,603 

1,259 

675 

355 


Acres 

26,256 

19,483 

2,098 

2,273 

917 

73,205 

67,304 

53.863 

15,164 


Acres 

148,493 
13,964 
8,611 
9,635 
6,537 
2,099 
1,039 
2,412 
2,312 


Canada, total . 


8,280,192 


56,820 


294,009 


260,563 


195,102 



CHAPTER VII 
TIMOTHY 

Timothy is by far the most important hay grass in 
America. A peciihar interest attaches to this crop because 
its first cultivation was on this continent, though the plant 
is of Old World origin. Its American given name has be- 
come adopted in all languages. 

105. Botany. — Timoth}^ {Phleum pratense) belongs 
to a genus in which botanists recognize 10 species. All 
of these are confined to the Old World with the exception 
of Mountain Timothy (Phleum alpinuin), which also 
extends to North America, occurring generally through 
the western mountains, and south as far as the White 
Mountains of New England. The botanical evidence is 
strongly against common timothy being native to the 
New World. It was early introduced, but has never been 
found in localities where its introduction was improbable. 
Most northern plants common to the Old and the New 
World range in North America either from Alaska south- 
ward through the western mountains, or southeastward to 
New England, or else range from Greenland south to New 
England. It has been thought by some that timothy was 
native in New England, but as the plant is not native 
to the northward of New England, nor in Alaska and the 
Rocky Mountains, it is quite certain that the plant is not 
endemic to North America. 

122 



TIMOTHY 



123 





Fig. 10. — Timothy. Florets 
showing the different parts. 

In the Old World 
timothy is native to most 
of Europe north to lati- 
tude 70 degrees, and east- 
ward through Siberia. 
It also occurs in the 
Caucasus region and in 
Algeria. Through this 
area occur about 10 dif- 
ferent botanical varieties, 
none of which have ever 
been cultivated. 

106. Agricultural his- 
tory. — Timothy was 
first brought into cultivation in the United States. It 
was first propagated, according to Jared Eliot, by one 
Herd, who found the grass growing along the Piscataqua 
River near Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Eliot in 1747 
recommends it for Massachusetts under the name Herd- 
grass. He also cites Ellis to the effect that Herd-grass 
had even that earl}^ been introduced into England from 
America. The culture of timothy is thus older than that 
of any other hay grass excepting perennial rye-grass. A 



Fig. 9. — Timothy {Pideum pratense). 
a, glumes ; b, floret with glumes re- 
moved. 



124 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

letter to Eliot from Benjamin Franklin under date of July 
16, 1747, states that the Herd-grass seed received proved 
to be ^' mere timothy." This is the earliest record of the 
name timothy. This designation is supposed to be derived 
from Timothy Hansen, who apparently brought the grass 
from New England into Maryland. Later its culture 
spread to Virginia, and from there was sent to England 
about 17G0 under the name timothy. In England the 
grass has been known also as meadow cat's-tail, but 
the name timothy is now used in nearly all languages. 
Timothy was the most important hay grass in the United 
States as early as 1807, and its supremacy has never been 
seriously threatened. 

107. Agricultural importance. — Practically^ all of the 
hay grass grown in the northeastern fourth of the United 
States and in southern Canada is timothy, either alone or 
in mixtures. An increasing quantity is also being grown in 




Fig. U. — Distribution of timothy, 1909-1910. Figures equal acres. 



TIMOTHY 125 

the irrigated valleys of the northwest and in the mountain 
states. The total value of the timothy crop, either alone 
or in mixtures, was, according to the last United States 
Census, about $300,000,000, which was ^ of the value of 
the corn crop, f of the value of the wheat crop and -| of 
the value of the cotton crop for the same year. 

The total acreage devoted to timothy was as much as 
that of all other cultivated hay plants combined, includ- 
ing clover and alfalfa. All of the other perennial hay 
grasses combined occupied but one-fourth the acreage of 
timothy. 

In Europe timothy has never been of the highest im- 
portance among grasses, but its use there in recent years 
seems to be steadily increasing. In other countries it is 
but little grown. 

108. Climatic adaptations. — Timothy is a northern 
grass, and does not succeed well in the United States 
south of latitude 36° excepting at higher elevations. It 
thrives fairly well on the Alaskan coast, but in the interior 
suffers both from winter cold and summer drought. No 
definite data regarding the minimum cold that timothy 
will withstand have been recorded, but it is more cold 
resistant than most cultivated grasses. At Copper Center, 
Alaska, a considerable proportion of the timothy plants 
survived a winter when redtop, tall oat-grass, orchard- 
grass and velvet-grass were completely destroyed. It has 
also matured seeds at this place. 

It does not well withstand hot, humid summers, and 
successful fields are rarely found in the area adapted to 
cotton. Crab-grass and other summer weeds are also 
destructive competitors. When planted in the cotton 
belt usually but one cutting of timothy can be obtained, 
and the plants then disappear. Even this degree of success 



126 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

can be obtained in the Gulf States only in the richest lands. 
Tracy suggests that the growth stimulated by warm 
winter weather weakens the bulbs so that the plants are 
less able to withstand summer heat and drought. 

109. Soil adaptation. — Timothy is best adapted to 
clay or loam soils. It does not possess much drought 
resistance, but on the other hand thrives best where 
moisture is abundant. In moist meadows it is sometimes 
the practice to sow timothy seed directly without any 
preparation of the soil, and timothy often makes a splendid 
stand, largely replacing the native plants. While timothy 
is mainly grown in humid regions, it is being more and 
more grown in irrigated regions, as large yields of readily 
marketable hay can be obtained, particularly in valleys 
too cool for the most successful growing of alfalfa. 

110. Advantages of timothy. — The importance of 
timothy in America is due to its rather remarkable com- 
bination of qualities, as well as to its splendid adaptation 
to the same area as red clover. Its advantages may thus 
be summarized : — 

1. It produces good yields. 

2. A stand is usually secured easily. 

3. The seed is usually high in purity, germinates well 
and the cost per acre is less than that of any other grass. 

4. It seldom lodges. 

5. It is easily cut and cured. 

6. The period during which it may be harvested is 
longer than that of most grasses. 

7. It is the favorite hay for city horses, and the demand 
and price is therefore greater than that of other hays. 

Among the objections that have been urged against 
timothy are : first, its lateness ; second, the fact that it 
becomes somewhat woody ; third, its comparatively low 



TIMOTHY 127 

nutritive value ; and fourth, the small amount of after- 
math. The last objection affects its value as a pasture 
plant ; the others are not important. 

111. Rotations. — Timothy is used in the most common 
of all rotations in the North ; namely, corn, oats, wheat, 
clover, timothy. The corn may be replaced by potatoes 
or other cultivated crop, the wheat by rye and the oats 
sometimes by cowpeas or soybeans, but there is no equally 
good substitute for the clover and timothy. 

In places where timothy is grown for market, or where 
the land is poor, timothy is often allowed to stand for five 
years or even more. On such fields the yields may be kept 
up by top-dressing with barnyard manure or other nitrog- 
enous fertilizers. 

Old timothy sod is apt to harbor insects, and therefore 
it is best to plow in winter, if possible. 

112. Seed. — Timothy seed is nearly always very pure, 
and is never adulterated except with old seed. The small 

^size and characteristic appearance of timothy seed, as well 
as its low price, make adulteration with other seeds prac- 
tically impossible. Some of the grains are free. 

The purity of good seed should be 99 per cent or more, 
and the viability 98-99 per cent. Germination ensues in 
5-6 days. 

The legal weight of the seed is commonly 45 pounds per 
bushel. It actually varies, however, from 42 to 50 pounds. 
One pound contains 1,170,500 to 1,320,000 seeds. 

The viability of timothy seed is retained better than 
that of most grasses. Stebler and Volkart state that it 
loses very little during the first year in viability, about 
10 per cent the second year, and 15 to 25 per cent the third 
year. At the Vienna Seed Testing Station seed 4 years 
old had lost but 9.4 per cent of its viability. At the 



128 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Wisconsin Experiment Station seed retained its viability 
well for 5 years, and then rapidly deteriorated. 

The free grains present in timothy seed show a somewhat 
lower viability than the grains in the hulls, according to 
tests at both the Wisconsin and Delaware Experiment 
Stations. 

113. Preparation of seed bed. — At the Utah Experi- 
ment Station three methods of preparing the gromid for 
seeding were compared, the plats being one-eighth acre 
in size : — 

'^ Plat 37 was harrowed twice with a disk harrow, 
once with a square-tooth harrow, then dragged with a 
clod crusher, followed by a square-tooth harrow, after 
which it was sown and again dragged. 

" Plat 38 was harrowed once with a disk harrow, again 
with square-tooth harrow, and the seed was dragged in 
with a clod crusher. 

*' Plat 39 was dragged level to receive the seed, passing 
over the ground but once with the drag or clod crusher, 
and then the seed was sown and covered by the drag or 
clod crusher. 



" Plat 37, it will be observed, was given a large amount 
of tillage. Plat 38 had a moderate amount of tillage. 
Plat 39 had none at all. The drag was used on Plats 
38 and 39, in order to place the seed in the same relative 
condition on the surface as the others, that the question 
of amount of cultivation might have no disturbing factors 
in the determination of results. Plat 39, as will be seen, 
was entirely untilled, the dragging was simply for the pur- 
pose of leveling the ground before and after covering the 
seed." 



TIMOTHY 



129 



Table showing Effect of Different Methods of Soil 
Preparation on Yields of Timothy. Utah Exp, Station 





Plat 


Crop 


OF 1892 


Crop 


OF 1893 


Total 
Weight 
1892-3 


Total 

Drv 

Matter 


Yield an 
Arre, lbs. 


Dry 

Matter 


Yield an 
Acre, lbs. 


Dry 

Matter 


37 

38 
39 


1920 
2680 
3080 


1448.98 

Lost 

2191.72 


1680 
2320 
2200 


1529.81 
2029.07 
2030.16 


3600 
5000 
5280 


2978.79 


4221.88 



114. Heavy seeds or light seeds. — Heavy seeds and 
light seeds separated by means of a brine solution were 
compared at the Utah Experiment Station in 1893. The 
first season crop from the heavy seed was larger by 28 
per cent, but in the second season the tw^o were alike. 

Clark at the New York (Geneva) Experiment Station 
separated timothy seed by using salt solutions of differ- 
ent specific gravities from 1 to 1.26. The percentage 
of germination was smallest in the lightest seeds and great- 
est in the heavy seeds. 

Hunt mentions a test at the Cornell Experiment Station 
in which three sizes of timothy seed, containing respectively 
600,000, 1,200,000 and 2,000,000 seeds to the pound were 
grown in similar plots. The result of a two years' trial 
was slightly in favor of the large seeds, both when the same 
number and the same weight per acre were planted. 

115. Rate of seeding. — The usual rate of seeding 
timothy is 12 to 15 pounds to the acre if seeded alone, and 
about 9 pounds if red clover is to be added. Few rate of 
seeding experiments have been reported. Hunt at the 
Cornell Experiment Station tested various rates at from 
5 to 35 pounds, and concluded that 15 pounds is a desirable 
rate. 



130 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

At the Utah Experiment Station seed was sown on poor 
soil at four different rates ; namely, 8, 16, 24 and 32 quarts 
an acre. The largest hay yield was from the 24-quart 
seeding the first season and from the 16-quart seeding the 
second season. The total yield for the two seasons was 
in favor of the 24-quart seeding, but this was but slightly 
greater than the 16-quart seeding. In both seasons the 
32-quart plot yielded least. 

Stebler and Volkart in Switzerland, and Werner in 
Germany, advise 19 kg. a hectare, which equals 17 pounds 
an acre. 

116. Depth of seeding. — Timothy seed, when sown 
with a hand seeder or with a grass seeder attachment 
behind a grain drill, is left on or very near the surface. If 
the seeder attachment permits the seed to drop in front 
of the grain drill, the timothy seeds will lie at various 
depths from the surface to that of the grain. There is 
reason to believe that timothy seed is ordinarily not 
covered deeply enough. 

Two tests at the Utah Experiment Station in broadcast- 
ing as compared with drilling gave contradictory results. 
In one experiment the drilled plots outyielded the broad- 
casted by 50 per cent the first year and 32 per cent the 
second year ; in the other, the broadcasted plots gave 
greater yields by 35 per cent the first year and 53 per cent 
the second season. 

117. Methods of seeding. — Four methods of seeding 
timothy are in use in America : (1) Seeding in fall with 
wheat or other grain ; (2) Seeding in fall alone on pre- 
pared land ; (3) Seeding in spring with grain ; (4) Seeding 
in the spring without a nurse crop. 

The first method of seeding timothy — namely, with 
wheat or other grain in the fall — is the most common, 



TIMOTHY 131 

probably 60 per cent or more of the timothy being thus 
sown. In this case a grass-seeding attachment is used on 
the grain drill, and the seed is allowed to fall either behind 
or in front of the wheat drill. In the latter case, it is 
somewhat covered. When thus seeded, timothy makes 
but little growth the succeeding year and no crop can be 
harvested. Partly on this account, medium red clover is 
sown in the wheat early in the spring. As a result a 
small crop of red clover may sometimes be harvested the 
same season, or at least some pasturage be secured. The 
next season the crop is mainly clover, and thereafter 
practically all timothy. This method of seeding involves 
a minimum amount of labor, and as a rule gives entirely 
satisfactory results. In many places it is unsatisfactory be- 
cause the timothy fields become increasingly foul year after 
year. The most troublesome weeds are the oxeye daisy 
{Chrysanthemum Leucanthernum) and the white fleabane 
(Erigeron ramosus and Erigeron annuus). Both of these 
weeds ripen all or much of their seed before timothy is cut 
for hay, and as these seeds live over in the ground for 
several years and are returned to the land in the manure, 
timothy fields frequently become badly infested. 

The second method — namely, of sowing alone in fall 
— is best where weeds are troublesome, and in general 
southward of the principal timothy area. The seed bed 
should be well prepared after plowing wheat or other grain 
stubble, -and sown to timothy in late summer or early fall. 
An excellent crop, practically free from weeds, will ordinarily 
be secured the next season. Southward of the parallel of 
36 degrees red clover can quite safely be sown with the 
timothy, especially if it be seeded rather early. This 
method should be more generally used. It involves more 
labor, but produces cleaner and usually larger crops. 



132 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

The third method — that of sowing in spring with a 
grain nurse crop — is used quite largely, especially near 
the northern limits of timothy culture, both in the East 
and on irrigated lands in the West. Clover may be and 
usually is seeded with the timothy. As a rule, it is best to 
sow very early on land that has been plowed the previous 
fall. A firm seed bed is better than a loose one. With 
this method practically no timothy is secured the first 
season. 

The fourth method — seeding without a nurse crop in 
spring — is used on irrigated lands in the Northwest, 
often with clover or alfalfa, and a fair cutting obtained 
the same season. It is also used on unirrigated lands in 
the West, where soil moisture conditions do not permit of 
fall seeding. In the latter case, the land is sometimes 
plowed in the fall or winter to conserve soil moisture, and" 
to avoid delay in spring seeding. 

Spring seeding, either with or without a nurse crop, is 
not satisfactory southward, as crab-grass and other 
summer weeds injure the timothy greatly. 

At the Iowa Experiment Station timothy was sown alone 
March 23 and 30, April 6, 13, 20 and 27 and May 3 and 10. 
The two May sowings were complete failures, and the 
April 27 one nearly so. The March 23 sowing gave a very 
good stand, but the later ones were inferior. 

118. Seed bed. — A fine, well-firmed seed bed is prob- 
ably the most favorable for timothy, as for most grasses. 
Where fall seeding alone is practiced, a cultivated crop 
like potatoes or tobacco leaves the land in excellent shape 
for timothy. 

If the ground is loose, rolling is probably advantageous. 
Rolling the ground after seeding was tested at the Utah 
Experiment Station, with the result of increasing the yield 



TIMOTHY 



133 



of hay both where the seed was drilled and where it was 
broadcasted. 

At the same experiment station the effect of different 
methods of preparing the seed bed was also tested, with 
the results shown in the following table : — 

Table showing Yields of Timothy with Different Depths 
OF Plowing. Utah Experiment Station 



Depth Plowed 



4 inches .... 
10 inches .... 

7 inches .... 

Not plowed, surface har 

rowed .... 



Crop of 1892 



Hay 

to the 
Acre 



Pounds 

2973 
3227 
3240 

4133 



Dry 

Matter 
to the 
Acre 



Pounds 

2473 

2748 
2737 

3582 



Crop of 1893 



Hay 

to the 
Acre 



Pounds 

2373 

2507 

2827 

4027 



Dry 

Matter 
to the 
Acre 



Pounds 

2161 
2345 

2627 



Total 1892-3 



Hay 
to the 
Acre 



Pounds 

5346 
5734 
6067 

8160 



Dry 

Matter 

to the 

Acre 

Pounds 

4634 
5093 
5364 



In this series of experiments the yields are in inverse 
relation to the depth of plowing. 

119. Fertilizers for timothy. — Timothy, as ordinarily 
grown in the corn-oats-wheat-clover-timothy rotation, 
usually secures only the residues of the fertilizers that are 
apphed to the cereal crops. Where timothy meadows are 
allowed to stand three years or more, the yield can be main- 
tained by top-dressings of fertilizer, especially barnyard 
manure. The experiments that have been conducted at 
a number of experiment stations have uniformly shown 
markedly increased yields from the use either of barnyard 
manure or of commercial nitrogenous fertilizers. In most 
cases, complete fertilizers have also given good results, but 
the return from phosphorus and potash is rarely so strik- 
ing as that from nitrogenous fertilizers. 



184 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

The data in Par. 88 also refer largely to timothy or 
timothy mixtures. 

At Cornell Experiment Station extensive fertilizer trials 
with timothy have been conducted. The largest yields 
were obtained by using 20 tons of barnyard manure and 
very good results by using 10 tons an acre. In all cases, 
the influence of nitrate of soda was very marked. The 
most satisfactory commercial fertilizer was found to be 320 
pounds nitrate of soda, 320 pounds acid phosphate and 80 
pounds muriate of potash an acre. The results indicate 
that a still smaller proportion of acid phosphate would 
have been economical. 

120. Lime. — On Dunkirk clay loam at the Cornell 
Experiment Station, applications of lime did not increase 
the hay yield. 

At the Rhode Island Experiment Station top-dressings 
of lime exercised but little influence, but it was well marked 
when the lime was harrowed into the soil. 

In the rotations at the Pennsylvania Experiment 
Station burned lime alone actually reduced the yields of 
grass (timothy and clover), but ground limestone and 
gypsum each increased the yield shghtly. 

121. Irrigation. — Timothy is grown with marked 
success on irrigated lands in the West. An abundance of 
water is necessary, as timothy is quickly injured by an 
insufficiency. Extensive experiments on timothy under 
irrigation have been conducted at the Utah Experiment 
Station, where it was found better to apply water at fre- 
quent intervals. On plots irrigated at intervals of 3, 6, 9, 
12, 15 and 18 days, the total amount of water being the 
same, the total yields of hay to the acre for the three years 
were respectively 3640, 4380, 4360, 4340, 4080, 3555 and 
2100 pounds. 



TIMOTHY 



135 



An oversufficiency of water is less injurious than too 
little. Where the soil was saturated respectively 4, SJ, 2J, 
2 and 1| feet, the total acre yields for three years were 
respectively 6040, 3900, 7020, 3580 and 4750 pounds of 
hay. 

In another experiment the ground was saturated 
respectively 31, 27, 33, 12 and 17 inches deep, and the 
corresponding yields per acre were 3576, 6496, 6096, 1070 
and 2260 pounds. 

In a different series of experiments the results are thus 
tabulated : — 



Irrigation water applied in 












inches to the acre .... 


7.50 


15 


30 


60 


100 


Total yield to the acre in pounds 


3982 


3844 


6054 


8406 


2214 


Yield to inch of irrigation 












water 


531 


256 


202 


140 


22 



It will be noted that 15 inches of water reduced the yield 
somewhat, a result also secured with orchard-grass, brome 
and Italian rye-grass. According to the above figures 30 
inches of water on one acre will yield but 6054 pounds 
of hay ; spread over two acres 7688 pounds ; and over 
four acres 11,928 pounds. 

Irrigation by means of a network of lateral ditches gave 
higher yields than by any other method of applying the 
water. 

Irrigating in the day time, 10 a.m., proved better than 
irrigating in the evening. The average yields for three 
years were respectively 3033 and 2033 pounds. 

Irrigating timothy fields both in the fall and in the 
spring increased the yield over spring irrigation alone an 
average of about 25 per cent during four seasons. 



136 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

122. Time to cut for hay. — The usual time recom- 
mended for cutting timothy hay is shortly after the anthers 
have fallen and not later than when the seed is in the dough 
stage. 

The problem of the best time to cut timothy for hay is a 
many-sided one, and has been attacked from several stand- 
points. The stage at which the grass is cut will affect : — 

1. The total yield. 

2. The palat ability. 

3. The digestibility. 

4. The ease of curing. 

5. The convenience of harvesting. 

6. The amount of the next season's crop. 

The most extensive studies on this problem have been 
those of Waters and Schweitzer at the Missouri Experi- 
ment Station, who conducted their investigations during 
twelve seasons. In these investigations the timothy was 
cut at five stages ; namely, coming into blossom, full 
bloom, seed formed, seed in dough and seed ripe. Their 
findings may be thus summarized : — 

The total yield of dry matter is on the average greatest 
in the hay at the time the seed is just formed. This was 
the case three seasons out of four, the yield being greatest 
at full bloom the second season. 

The total amount each of protein, ether extract and 
ash per acre was greatest in the hay cut at full bloom; 
of nitrogen-free extract when the seed was in the dough 
stage ; of crude fiber when the seed was just formed. 

The loss of dry matter and perhaps of other substances 
as the plants approach maturity is due partly to the storage 
of material by the bulbs, partly to loss of leaves by drying 
and breaking off, especially the lower ones, and partly 
by the solvent action of rain. 



TIMOTHY 137 

The total amount each of digestible protein, nitrogen- 
free extract, crude fiber and ash is greatest at time of 
full bloom ; of ether extract when the seed is in the dough. 

The chgestibility of the hay is greatest in the youngest 
stages and gradually decreases in the later cuttings. This 
is also true of the protein and the crude fiber, but is less 
marked in the nitrogen-free extract. 

Yearling steers fed only on timothy showed a marked 
preference to the hays cut at the younger stages, eating 
the first three cuttings before they, would touch the others. 
Other cattle fed liberally on grain and silage did not show 
a decided preference, as was also the case with well-fed 
sheep. 

Timothy cut young is more difficult to cure and more 
easily damaged by weather. 

At the time w^hen timothy is in full bloom, other farm 
operations, especially the cultivation of corn, are impera- 
tive. 

Early cutting is thought to weaken the bulbs and to 
lessen the next year's crop. 

Morse at the New Hampshire Experiment Station 
studied timothy cut every five days from June 4 to July 31. 
The conclusions were as follows : — 

"Timothy grass grows very rapidly until the blossoms appear. 
Its fastest growth is between the appearance of the head and the 
beginning of the bloom, 

"The amount of grass per acre increases until the time of 
blossoming. It then decreases. The decrease is due to loss of 
water. 

"Dry substance steadily increases until the plant forms seed. 

"The young grass is richest in fat and protein. The mature 
grass is richest in carbohydrates or fiber and nitrogen-free extract. 

"Timothy yields the largest amount of digestible protein when 
cut at the beginning of bloom. 



138 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



"The total amount of digestible matter is largest when the 
grass has passed out of blossom, or gone to seed." 

Table showing Relation between Time of Cutting and 
Yield in Pounds of Timothy 



Stage when Cut 


Illinois 1 


Missouri^ 
Ave. of 

5 YES. 


Connect- 
icut 3 


Pennsyl- 
vania 4 


Maine 5 




Water- 
free 


Water- 
free 


Water- 
free 


Water- 
iree 


Hay 


Well headed .... 
Coming into bloom 
Full bloom .... 
Anthers half fallen 
Out of bloom 
Seed formed 
Seed in dough . 
Late cut .... 
Seed nearly ripe 
Seed ripe . . . . 






2749 








3411 
3964 






3287 
3423 


3301 


2586 


4225 




3117 


. 






4089 
4038 






4012 












5086 


4064 




3616 


3064 


3747 













123. Yields. — The average yield of timothy hay per 
acre, according to the Thirteenth United States Census, 
was in tons per acre for the various divisions as follows : 
New England, 1.12; Middle Atlantic, 1.09; East North 
Central, 1.26; West North Central, 0.97; Mountain, 
1.48; Pacific, 1.62; and for the whole United States, 1.22 
tons. In the Canadian Census special data for timothy 
are not reported. 

Different experiment stations have reported yields 
of timothy in pounds to the acre, as follows : Ohio, 3497 ; 

1 Illinois Exp. Sta. Bui. 5. 

2Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci. 1910, p. 75. 

3 Conn. State Board Agr., 12th An. Rep. 1878-9. 

4 Penn. State College, An. Rep. 1886, p. 273. 
6 Maine Exp. Sta., An. Rep. 1890, p. 65. 



TIMOTHY 139 

Pennsylvania, 3344; Kansas, 5528; Illinois, 4400; 
Michigan, 3466; Minnesota, 4340; Utah, 2045; North 
Carolina, 2136; North Dakota, 2470; Cornell, without 
fertihzers, 2000 to 3600, with fertilizers, up to a maximum 
of 8940. 

Good yields of timothy average about 2 tons to the 
acre ; maximum yields may reach 4 J tons an acre, but 
such are secured only by heavy fertilizing or on rich 
irrigated lands in the Northwest. 

European yields for the acre are recorded as follows : 
Vianne in France, 5280 to 13,200 pounds ; Sinclair in 
England, 17,356 to 19,398 pounds ; Werner in Germany, 
5280 to 6160 pounds ; Pinckert in Germany, 4050 pounds ; 
Sprengel in Germany, 3520 to 4400 pounds. The yields 
of Sinclair are based on very small plots and cannot be 
realized on a field scale. 

124. Pasture. — Timothy alone is not well adapted 
to permanent pastures, but is a useful element in most 
mixtures. Most of it will disappear in about three years. 
For temporary pastures, however, it forms an important 
element. 

The pasturing of timothy meadows in fall and even in 
spring is a very general practice, both in the East and on 
irrigated lands in the West. It is very doubtful, however, 
if the practice is a wise one. The bulbs of timothy are 
easily injured by the close pasturing of sheep and by the 
trampling of larger animals. 

At the Utah Experiment Station some data were se- 
cured to show this effect. On three plots of f acre each 
the yields in 1892 were respectively 6633, 6960 and 7333 
pounds per acre. The first plot was grazed by 18 head 
of cattle May 16, 1893 ; the second was left ungrazed ; 
while the third was grazed by two heifers for two weeks, 



140 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

November 8-22, 1892. The 1893 yields to the acre were 
respectively 2933, 5107 and 4800 pounds. Spring grazing 
thus proved markedly injurious, while light fall grazing 
was much less so. 

125. Pollination. — The pollen of timothy is very light, 
and with a scarcely perceptible air movement will float 
12 feet or more. The grass is normally anemophilous — 
that is, pollinated by wind — as indicated by the large 
feathery stigmas and light pollen. 

According to Hopkins's observations in West Virginia, 
timothy flowers begin to bloom 10 to 15 days after the 
tip of the spike is visible. On each spike the blooming 
period extends from 7 to 12 days. The flowers open as 
a rule early in the morning and the stigma is exserted at 
the time the anthers open, so that self-polhnation may 
easily occur. 

No observations are recorded as to whether an in- 
dividual flower is self -fertile or not. Some seed may be 
produced, however, by bagging a single head or all the 
heads of a single plant. 

126. Seed-production. — Timothy is one of the most 
reliable grasses for seed-production. The grass is usually 
cut with a grain binder and the bundles put in small 
shocks and allowed to cure for a week or more. Thrash- 
ing is done by a grain separator, but special sieves are 
necessary. The average jdeld of seed is stated to be 
about 7 bushels an acre and the maximum 12 bushels. 

Some loss from shattering will occur if the seed be 
allowed to become overripe. Showery weather causes 
the glumes, by opening and closing, to become looser, so 
that in thrashing a considerable proportion of the seed 
becomes freed from the glumes. 

The principal seed-producing states in the order of total 



TIMOTHY 141 

yield are Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, Kansas, 
Ohio. 

In Europe some surplus seed is grown in Germany and 
in Austria. Werner gives the German yield at 500 to 
800 kg. to the hectare. Michalowski at Hohenheim from 
fall sowings obtained 244 kg. the first year and 554 kg. 
the second year to the hectare. From a spring sowing the 
seed yield the second year was 567 kg. the hectare. 

The date of harvesting influences the weight of seed 
obtained. Thus Dorph-Petersen in Denmark harvested 
from plots at intervals of 3 days, the yields being at the 
rate respectively of 303, 346, 360 and 414 kg. the hectare. 

127. Life history. — If a seedling of timothy is care- 
fully examined, a small bud, the beginning of a corm or 
bulb, will be found in the axil at the base of each of the 
leaves. The basal internodes are very short until the one 
is reached which becomes the primary corm. The smaller 
axillary corms below develop later and give the false 
appearance of having arisen from the base of the pri- 
mary bulb. A single seedling may have during the 
first year 8 to 18 corms and shoots, each with a more or 
less well-developed corm, from the base of which roots are 
produced. Under field conditions all of these shoots do 
not survive, as crowding and other conditions prevent 
the weaker ones from securing enough nourishment. 
Where the plants are isolated, most of the shoots will 
head at approximately the same height, but if the plants 
are crowded and the nourishment is insufficient, the weaker 
shoots head when much smaller than the others. A 
timothy shoot heads but once, and then dies, including 
the corm. Before the latter dies, however, a new lateral 
bulb is usually developed from its base, or if the corm is 
double from the base of each joint. Normally the shoot 



144 • FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

strains in plots of 50 square meters was as follows : Pom- 
erania, 116.6 kg. ; Saxony, 112.6 kg. ; America, 111.8 
kg. ; and Mahren (Moravia), 107.4 kg. The differences 
are not significant. 

The trials of the Landwirtschaftsgesellschaft in Ger- 
many gave the following yields a hectare in kilograms : 
Finland I, 4528; Canada, 4500; United States, 4395; 
Saxony, 4022; Finland II, 3974; GaUcia, 3878; East 
Prussia, 3767 ; Moravia, 3700. 

Definite conclusions can scarcely be drawn from the 
above limited data. 

132. Feeding value. — There are comparatively few 
feeding experiments reported by which the feeding value 
of timothy can be compared with other hays. 

Experiments at the Mississippi Experiment Station in- 
dicate that its feeding value for working mules and for 
dairy cows is practically identical with that of Bermuda- 
grass hay. 

At the Utah Experiment Station the conclusion was 
reached that wild hay was more valuable pound for pound 
in feeding both sheep and cattle than was timothy hay. 

Haecker in two series of experiments at the Minnesota 
Experiment Station finds that prairie hay and timothy 
have equal feeding value for dairy cows. 

At the Illinois Experiment Station alfalfa was compared 
to timothy in a ration fed to dairy cows. Each of the 16 
cows produced considerably more milk when on the alfalfa 
ration than when on the timothy ration, the increase on 
the average being 17.7 per cent. 

At the same experiment station, timothy and alfalfa 
were compared for work horses, and the conclusion was 
reached that with alfalfa less grain is required to prevent 
them from losing weight than where timothy is fed. In 



'timothy 145 

this experiment the saving in grain was 22 per cent in 
favor of the alfalfa. 

At the Indiana Experiment Station red clover hay was 
found much more efficient than timothy hay in fattening 
steers when both were fed with grain corn. The ad- 
vantages that the use of clover hay has over the timothy 
in fattening steers are that it improves the appetite, keeps 
the digestive system in good condition, improves the 
appearance of the coat, causes the steers to make more 
rapid gains, produces a pound of gain at less expense, 
and results in a higher finish and a corresponding increase 
in the value per hundred of the finished steer. 

At the same station timothy hay was compared with 
red clover hay for fattening lambs. As a result of one 
direct comparison, timothy was found far inferior. When 
fed with corn alone, the effect of the timothy on the thrift 
of the lambs was harmful. 

Two feeding tests of timothy in comparison with red 
clover hay for horses have been conducted at the Illinois 
Experiment Station. From, the first test the conclusion 
was reached that clover hay when fed with a mixed grain 
ration is more efficient for producing gains than timothy 
hay. In this test clover hay produced 58 per cent more 
gain in weight than did timothy. 

In the second experiment both hays were compared on 
work horses. The data indicate that there is but little 
difference in the value of the two when fed in conjunction 
with mixed grains consisting of corn, oats, oil meal and 
bran. The horses fed the clover hay had, however, 
glossier coats of hair. The laxative effect of the clover 
was evident, but not to an objectionable degree. 

In a feeding experiment with 6 steers at the Maine 
Experiment Station the animals were fed for 28 days with 



1J:6 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

timothy hay cut when in bloom and for 41 days with 
timothy hay cut 17 days after bloom. In the first period 
the steers gained 1.47 pounds per diem and in the second 
period 1.49 pounds per diem. 

133. Injurious insects. — Timothy is not much subject 
to insect injury, but a few species may at times do con- 
siderable damage. 

Bill-bug {Sphenophorus zece) . — The larva of this weevil 
burrows into the bulbs of timothy and feeds on the in- 
terior, thus weakening the culm. In Illinois Forbes found 
50 to 75 per cent of the bulbs infested or injured in fields 
three or four years old, and 10 to 20 per cent in fields two 
years old. Hopkins expresses the opinion that the bill- 
bug is one of the prime causes of early failure of timothy 
meadows in West Virginia, and suggests as a remedy that 
the stubble be fertilized with stable manure, tobacco dust 
or lime immediately after hay harvest. As the same 
insect attacks corn, the timothy sod should, if possible, 
be plowed in winter to destroy as many of the insects as 
possible. 

Joint-worm {Isosoma sp.). — The larva of this insect 
infests the stems of timothy, never more than a single 
larva in a culm. As a result of the injury it causes the 
head and upper portion of the stem to die prematurely. 
The dead spikes conspicuously reveal the work of this 
insect. Where abundant it may reduce the hay yielded 
10 to 20 per cent. 

134. Diseases. — Timothy is affected by but few 
fungous diseases that cause damage worthy of notice. 

Timothy rust {Puccinia phlei-pratensis) occurs in 
nearly all states east of the Mississippi, and in Minnesota 
and Iowa. It caused serious injury in timothy breeding 
plots at Arlington Farm, Virginia, in 1906, where somesel^c- 



TIMOTHY 147 

tions were totally destroyed. It closely resembles wheat 
rust and attacks both the leaves and culms. The fungus 
lives over winter on timothy in Virginia. Farther north- 
ward teleutospores are abundantly produced. The rust 
has been artificially transferred to oats, rye, tall fescue, 
orchard-grass and Canada blue-grass, but wheat and barley 
seem immune. 

In fields of timothy the rust seems never to be abundant, 
and no injury worth while has been reported. On the 
other hand, wayside isolated plants are often covered with 
pustules, and apparently more so southward. The cup- 
fungus (secidial) stage of this rust is not known. Experi- 
ments in inoculating barberry plants, the secidial host of 
the wheat rust, have been ineffective. 

Another disease which sometimes attacks timothy as 
well as other grasses is a leaf smut ( Ustilago striceformis) . 
It causes dark thickened lines on the leaf blades and 
sheaths, which later burst open and become dusty from 
the spores. This fungus is rather widespread, and has 
been reported as damaging timothy in Wisconsin and in 
Illinois. Severely attacked plants do not form heads. 

135. Variability. — Timothy is a very variable grass, 
as may easily be seen by examining individual plants where 
they are growing scattered so as to permit the full develop- 
ment of each. Some of the more marked varieties have 
received names at the hands of botanists. Hays at the 
Minnesota Experiment Station referred to a number of 
the commoner variations in 1889, and Hopkins at the 
West Virginia Experiment Station published more com- 
plete studies in 1894. 

Clark has made a very full study of the variations ob- 
served in 3505 isolated plants in the breeding nursery at 
Cornell University Experiment Station. Some of the 



148 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

variations observed by him may be thus briefly sum- 
marized : — 

The leaves vary from 4 to 15 inches in length, and are 
from .25 to .75 inch broad. They may be flat or con- 
cave or loosely twisted ; spreading, drooping, or nearly 
erect. The number to the culm ranges from 3 to 8. 

The stems are usually green, rarely reddish or bluish, 
18 to 55 inches tall, .05 to .15 inch in diameter, erect 
to decumbent. The nodes are usually brown, but vary to 
green. 

The heads are normally cylindrical, with a rounded 
or abruptly pointed tip, but on some plants they have 
a long tapering apex or a tapering base, or both. They 
vary in length from 1 to 12 inches ; in diameter, from .2 to 
.4 inch ; in color they are usually green, sometimes purple. 

The blooming period of the earliest individuals was 
18 days earlier than the latest ones in 1907. This differ- 
ence doubtless fluctuates according to the season, being 
lengthened by cool weather and shortened by warm 
weather. 

The life period probably varies greatly. Some in- 
dividuals are apparently annual, and others survived only 
two years. Most of the plants were still vigorous at the 
end of nearly six years. 

The vigor of individuals varies greatly. 

The number of culms per plant ranges from a few up to 
280. 

The yield of hay to the plant ranges from .01 pound to 
1.35 pounds. 

The only positive correlation found was that between 
weight and height. 

136. Disease resistance. — The most serious disease 
that has affected timothy in America is rust. At Arlington 



TIMOTHY 149 

Farm, Virginia, in 1906, this disease completely destroyed 
some of the selected strains, while others were but slightly 
affected. None were wholly immune. The relative re- 
sistance of these plants was much the same in 1908 and 
in 1909, but in the latter year the rust was far more 
abundant. Inoculation experiments in the greenhouse 
showed that all plants could be inoculated, but that there 
was great difference in the degree to which the fungus 
developed in different individuals. 

Clark at the Cornell Experiment Station has also 
recorded the marked variability in the susceptibility of 
different timothy plants to rust. 

137. Breeding. — The first serious attempt made to 
select the superior individuals from timothy and thus 
to secure improved strains was by Hopkins, of the West 
Virginia Experiment Station, in 1893. Among the best 
of the strains selected by Hopkins were the Stewart, 
a tall leafy form especially adapted to hay production; 
the Pasture, the progeny of a plant found surviving in an 
old, much overgrazed pasture, and conspicuous for the 
amount of aftermath which it produced ; and the Early 
or Hopkins variety, which matured two weeks earlier than 
any other. At the West Virginia station, where these 
varieties were selected, they were found to be distinctly 
superior to ordinary mixed timothy. These varieties were 
secured by the United States Department of Agriculture 
in 1902, and large quantities of seed of these three varieties 
were grown. The Early remained nearly pure, as it came 
to maturity before other varieties of timothy were in 
bloom. The other two varieties, however, became some- 
what mixed, but their main characteristics remained 
evident. These three varieties were tried out on a farm 
scale in various parts of the United States, but the results 



150 FORAGE PLANTS AND TUEIR CULTURE 

were on the whole disappointing, as when taken to new 
locaUties these timothies were httle, if any, superior to 
ordinary mixed timothy. In Virginia, they were all 
found severely subject to timothy rust, a disease which 
had become prevalent about this time, and which in- 
troduced a new factor into timothy breeding. The 
breeding work inaugurated by Hopkins has been con- 
tinued by the Department of Agriculture, first in Virginia, 
and now on a special station in Ohio. In 1903, breeding 
work was undertaken at the Cornell Experiment Station, 
and about the same time at the Minnesota Experiment 
Station. Some of the best of the Cornell selections proved 
decidedly inferior in comparison with the Hopkins timothies 
in Virginia, and the reverse of this was the case when they 
were planted side by side at the Cornell Station. On the 
whole, the evidence indicates that the bred varieties of 
timothy will have a comparatively narrow adaptation. 
The best results are to be expected in breeding timothy 
for each locality. Beginning in 1905, the breeding of 
timothy has also been undertaken at Svalof, Sweden and 
other places in Europe. 

There can be little doubt that the breeding of timothy 
will be advantageous. Such breeding, however, will 
necessarily have to be continuous, as timothy, like corn, 
is almost impossible to keep pure. Similar methods to 
those used in corn breeding can very well be used in 
connection with timothy breeding. 

138. Methods of breeding. — Webber recommends 
on the basis of the experience at the Cornell Experiment 
Station the following plan of conducting timothy breeding, 
beginning with the selected individual plant. These 
methods differ but little from those which were employed 
by Hopkins. 



TIMOTHY 151 

1. The selected plant is propagated vegetatively by 
digging up and separating the bulbs that are formed in the 
stooling of the plant. These are taken in early September 
and a row of sixteen to twenty-four plants grown. These 
plants, it will be understood, are only transplanted parts 
of the same individual. From such propagation the 
character of the individual can be judged better and a 
more nearly correct idea can be obtained of the yielding 
capacity of the plant as well as of other characters. 

2. Inbred seed is sown carefully in sterilized soil and 
the seedlings transplanted in rows in field plats as above 
described, in order to test the transmission of the char- 
acters for which the plants were selected. 

3. As soon as sufficient seed can be obtained, plats are 
sown broadcast in the usual way in order to test the yield 
under ordinary field conditions. 

4. As soon as a variety is known or believed to be valu- 
able, isolated plats are planted from inbred seed in order 
to obtain seed for planting larger areas that will finally 
give sufficient quantities of seed for distribution. 

139. Desirable types of improved timothies. — The 
main object sought in breeding timothy is to secure 
varieties that will give increased hay yield. Hopkins 
also developed an early strain that could be harvested ten 
days earlier than the ordinary, and which on account of 
its earliness did not cross much with other strains. He 
also endeavored to secure a variety that would withstand 
heavy pasturing, using as the basis a plant that had sur- 
vived several years in a closely grazed field. Another 
type was distinguished by the fact that its stems remained 
green when the seed was ripe, producing presumably a 
straw with greater feeding value. 

Webber at the Cornell Experiment Station has sought 



152 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

to select early, medium and late varieties, each with the 
following combination of characters : — 

1. Highest yield; 2. tall growth; 3. good stooUng 
capacity ; 4. culms numerous and dense ; 5. erect, 
without tendency to lodge; 6. numerous large leaves; 
7. culms leafy to near the top; 8. tendency to remain 
green late ; 9. rust resistance in high degree ; 10. heads 
medium sized and bearing abundant good seed. 

140. Comparison of vegetative and seed progeny. — 
When timothy is propagated vegetatively, the progeny 
are identical, at least in the great majority of cases. When, 
however, the seed of a single plant is sown, the offspring 
show considerable diversity. Webber has compared 
the average yield of selected plants with that of their 
descendants grown both clonally or vegetatively and from 
seed. In the latter case some of the plants were grown 
from open-fertilized and others from self-fertiHzed seed. 
The average yield to the plant for all types tested was as 
follows : original plants, 9.307 ounces ; clons or vegeta- 
tive offspring, 8.769 ounces; open-fertihzed seed 6.963 
ounces; self-fertihzed seed, 5.243 ounces. These data 
seem to indicate that self-fertilization tends to reduce 
vigor. 

In another series of investigations the yield of clonal 
individuals was compared to that of seedlings from the 
same parent. In all cases the seed-propagated plant 
yielded less than the corresponding clon. A comparison 
of the average yields, however, shows that as the yield 
of the clons of an individual was high or low, so was its 
corresponding progeny produced from inbred seed. The 
increase in yield, however, from the lowest to the highest 
was relatively much less in the seed-propagated plants 
than in the clons. 



TIMOTHY 



153 



141. Field trials with improved strains. — At the Cor- 
nell Experiment Station 17 improved strains were com- 
pared in field j:)lots with commercial timothy. In the 
first season, 1910, all but three of the selected strains out- 
yielded the check plots grown from commercial seed ; 
the second season, 1911, all of the selected strains out- 
yielded the checks. The data secured were thus sum- 
marized : — 



Average yield (17 new 
sorts) 

Average yield (commer- 
cial seed) 

Average increase 



1910 



7451 lb. an acre 

6600 lb. an acre 
851 lb. an acre 



1911 



7153 lb. an acre 

4091 lb. an acre 
3062 lb. an acre 



CHAPTER VIII 

BLUE-GRASSES, MEADOW-GRASSES AND 

RED TOP 

All the different species called blue-grass, and most of 
those called meadow-grass, belong to the genus Poa, for 
which some early writers used the English equivalent poe, 
now practically obsolete. All of the cultivated poas are 
much alike agriculturally, being especially useful for 
pastures. 

Redtop and related species of bent-grass (Agrostis) are 
botanically quite remote from the Poas, but agriculturally 
very similar. Redtop itself is perhaps equally valuable 
for pasturage and for hay. 

THE BLUE-GRASSES 

142. Kentucky blue-grass (Poa pratensis). — Ken- 
tucky blue-grass is also known as June-grass, or simply 
as blue-grass. It has been called smooth-stalked meadow- 
grass to distinguish it from rough-stalked meadow-grass 
(Poa trivialis). In Virginia it was formerly known as 
greensward. The name of Kentucky is used as a prefix 
partly because of the famous blue-grass lands of that 
state, and partly to distinguish it from Canada blue- 
grass. The narrow-leaved variety of blue-grass was 
formerly known as '' bird grass." 

143. Botany. — Poa pratensis, in its ordinary cultivated 
form, is quite certainly not native to North America. 
Endemic varieties do occur, however, from Alaska south- 

154 



BLUE-GRASSES 



155 



ward to British Columbia, in Labrador, and probably on 
the coast of New England. The Alaska and Labrador forms 
are apparently distinct from any Old World varieties, but 
have not received dis- 
tinctive names. A dwarf 
form on the New Eng- 
land seacoast is appar- 
ently identical with var. 
costata Hartm. found on 
European seacoasts. 

European botanists 
have described many 
varieties, as the species 
group is highly variable. 
Even the cultivated 
forms occurring in 
America, which consist 
wholly or mainly of the 
typical form and of the 
narrow-leaved variety 
angustifolia, give by se- 
lection a long series of 
distinguishable strains. 
There are possibilities 
in some of these forms 
of Kentucky blue-grass 
that may in the future 

wamnt thpir spI potion ^^^- 12. — Kentucky blue-grass (Poa 
warrant tneir selection ^ratensis). a, spikelet; b, lemma show- 
and culture for special ing attached tuft of hairs. 

purposes. 

In the Old World, Poa pratensis is native over practi- 
cally all of Europe, the northern half of Asia and in the 
mountains of Algeria and Morocco. 




156 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 




144. Adaptations. — Kentucky blue-grass is adapted 
primarily to temperate regions of relatively high humidity, 
but in the arid regions succeeds well under irrigation. It 
is markedly resistant to cold, never freezing out in the 
most severe winter weather. During summer heat, 
however, its growth languishes and, even with abundant 

moisture, shows little vigor 
,4 during the hot weather 
of July and August. Its 
area of usefulness extends 
farther south than that of 
timothy, as it survives hot 
summer weather and makes 
good pasturage in the fall 
and spring. It begins 
growth in the spring earlier 
than most grasses, and con- 
tinues to grow as late into 
the fall as any other grass. 
Blue-grass prefers well- 
drained loams or clay 
loams, particularly such as 
are rich in humus. Southward it is especially abundant 
on limestone soils, where it often grows to the exclusion 
of other species. The famous blue-grass regions of Ken- 
tucky and Virginia are of limestone origin. On poor soils 
it is never abundant, giving way to other grasses like red- 
top and Canada blue-grass. 

Spillman has pointed out that the distribution of blue- 
grass in the East closely corresponds with that of the 
glaciated soils and that southward of this area it is con- 
fined almost wholly to limestone soils. 

Blue-grass will endure fairly wet soils but not so well 



— A spikelet and florets 
of Kentucky blue-grass, a, spikelet 
as it appears at maturity; b, the same 
having the florets spread apart, show- 
ing jointed rachiJla ; c, back view of 
a floret, showing the lemma (1) ; d, 
front view of the floret, showing the 
edges of the lemma (1), the palet (2) 
and the rachilla segment (3); e, the 
grain or kernel. 



BLUE-GRASSES 157 

as redtop. It has but little endurance to drought, but 
even in semi-arid regions, where it is normally burnt brown 
for two months or more, it promptly recovers with the fall 
rains. 

It is only fairly well adapted to growing in shade, not 
being nearly equal in this respect to orchard-grass or 
red fescue. 

145. Importance. — Kentucky blue-grass is of rela- 
tively small importance in Europe, but in North America 
it is by far the most important pasture grass and second 
among grasses in total value only to timothj^ In the 
timothy region, all of the best pastures are wholly or 
primarily blue-grass, and it is likewise the commonest 
lawn grass in the same area. 

It is difficult to find a satisfactory explanation for 
the great importance of this grass and of timothy in 
America. About all that can be said is that these two 
grasses are much better adapted to the climatic con- 
ditions of cold winters and hot, rather dry summers 
than are any other European grasses used for the same 
purposes. 

Kentucky blue-grass differs from most humid region 
grasses in that the old dried or half-dried herbage is readily 
eaten by animals, in this respect resembling some of the 
grasses native to arid regions. Late fall or winter pas- 
turage may thus be secured by permitting the grass to 
make considerable growth in the fall. 

146. Characteristics. — Kentuckj^ blue-grass grows but 
slowly at first, and even on lawns where it is planted 
thickly, a good sod is not formed until the second year. 
It produces abundant short rootstocks, which finally de- 
velop into upright shoots. The blossoms appear earlier 
than most other grasses, and blue-grass is peculiar in that 



158 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

it blooms but once a year, no matter how favorable the 
conditions may be after cutting. The plants are very 
long-lived and under favorable conditions there seems to 
be no limit to the time endurance of a blue-grass pasture. 
In the humid region west of the Cascade Mountains in 
Oregon, Washington and British Columbia, blue-grass 
is rather troublesome as a weed, especially in berry patches 
and similar places that cannot be plowed. 

The grass is very palatable to all classes of live stock, 
much more so than any other grass so capable of main- 
taining itself. It is distinctly exceeded in palatability 
only by smooth brome-grass. 

At the Kansas Experiment Station the roots of blue- 
grass on an old sod were found to penetrate to a depth of 
four feet, but there were comparatively few below 18 
inches. They are densest in the top six inches. 

147. Culture. — Probably 90 per cent of the blue- 
grass pastures in America have developed spontaneously. 
On most farms the untillable land is left for pasture, and 
in the timothy region this is eventually composed mainly 
of blue-grass with more or less white clover and redtop. 
On the best blue-grass soils, however, the returns are 
profitable enough so that large areas of tillable land 
are kept permanently in pasture. 

No definite systems have yet become estabUshed for 
using blue-grass in rotations, primarily because blue- 
grass pastures improve with age, at least for several 
years. 

Where sown, the seed is best planted in fall. A com- 
mon method is to sow it with timothy and clover, sowing 
the seed in fall with the timothy. After two years in 
clover and timothy for hay, the land is then pastured and 
the blue-grass finally occupies the land as the timothy 



BLUE-GRASSES 159 

disappears. Blue-grass sown in this way adds a little 
bottom grass to the hay crop of timothy and clover. 

The amount of seed to use per acre, if sown alone, is 
not very definite, due partly to the small extent to which 
this grass is sown and partly to its very uncertain quality. 
Werner recommends 20 pounds per acre ; Stebler and 
Schroter 17| pounds ; Spillman 25 to 30 pounds. Hunt 
says 40 pounds is the usual rate, but that half this amount 
of good seed would probably suffice. On lawns much 
greater quantities are desirable, four bushels being the 
rate commonly advised. 

148. Fertilizers. — Blue-grass yields so little, even at its 
maximum, that but few fertilizer experiments have been 
conducted on pastures or meadows. Where it is grown 
on lawns, however, abundant experience shows that 
blue-grass responds markedly to lime and to nitrogen 
fertilizers. 

At the Massachusetts Experiment Station Kentucky 
blue-grass top-dressed annually for 5 years with nitrate of 
soda was found to be much subject to rust and otherwise 
unsatisfactory. Another plot top-dressed with potash 
salts and basic slag meal in addition to nitrate of soda 
produced far heavier and more satisfactory crops. 

As shown in the accompanying table, the largest in- 
creases were secured by the use of heavy applications of 
manure, or practically the same by using a complete ferti- 
lizer. Nitrate of soda alone had but Kttle effect, and this 
also true of muriate of potash. Acid phosphate alone gave 
the best results of any single fertilizing element. The 
results of the three combined apparently increased the 
effectiveness of each. Apparently the most far-reaching 
tests of fertihzers to determine the effect on yield of hay 
are those of Morrow and Hunt. 



160 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



Table showing the Results secured from Fertilizing 
Kentucky Blue-grass at the Illinois Experiment 
Station. (Morrow and Hunt) 





Kind of Fertilizer 
Both Seasons 


« 

2 S 

J - 

^< 

O K 
H 


>< 

Q 

Woo 

O'-i 

go 

^< 

^W 
O H 


u 

0.-H 

9 a 

O K 

a ^ 


n « 


1 

« 

o ri 
w - 

H 
K 
U 


1 
M 

a ^ 
r£ iz; 
^ w 
o o 

1—4 


1 

2 


Horse manure i 
None 




12 loads 

500 lb. 
500 lb. 

13 loads 
500 lb. 
200 lb. 
200 lb. 

200 lb. 
200 lb. 
500 lb. 


2.340 
1,220 
1,600 
1,880 
1,080 
2,160 

2,280 

720 

960 

1,040 

780 


3,180 
2,100 
2,400 
2,200 
2,040 
2,460 

3,060 

2,000 
2,320 
2,340 
2,060 


2,760 
1,660 
2,000 
2,040 
1,500 
2,310 

2,670 

1,560 
1,640 
1,690 
1,420 


1,165 

405 
445 

715 

1,075 

45 
95 


73 


3 

4 
5 


Cattle tankage 

Superphosphate 

None 




25 
27 


6 

'1 

8 


Horse manure - 
Superphosphate 
Muriate of potash 
Nitrate of soda 
None 


3 


45 
67 


9 
10 
11 


Muriate of potash 
Nitrate of soda 
Gypsum 


3 


3 

6 



149. Yields of hay. — Blue-grass is too small to give 
large yields of hay and is seldom employed for such pur- 
pose, excepting where it comes in naturally. The hay is 
considered to be of good quality, but not equal to timothy. 

Yields in pounds to the acre have been reported by ex- 
periment stations as follows : Ohio, 2187, 6-year average ; 
Kansas, 1830, 2-year average ; Michigan (Upper Penin- 
sula), 3280; Guelph, Ontario, 3160, 7-3^ear average; 
Utah, 1060 ; Lacombe, Alberta, 1724, 2-year average. 

At the Illinois Experiment Station Kentucky blue-grass 
gave a yield of 2508 pounds dry matter to the acre when 

1 24,320 lb. in 1890. 2 21 ,880 lb. in 1890. ^ Sulfate of potash in 1890. 



BLUE-GRASSES 161 

the seeds were in the milk stage, and 2907 pounds when 
the seeds were ripe. 

In Europe yields ranging from 3500 to 6250 pounds 
an acre are reported, but most of these are based on very 
small plots. 

Irrigated blue-grass at the Iowa Experiment Station 
yielded 15,160 pounds green matter, and non-irrigated 
10,360, the water contents of the grass being, respectively, 
67 and 60 per cent. 

150. Seed-production. — Commercial seed of Kentucky 
blue-grass is gathered mainly in the blue-grass region of 
Kentucky, especially the counties of Bourbon, Fayette 
and Clark. In recent years increasing quantities are 
harvested in northern Missouri and southern Iowa. 

The seed is harvested from about the 10th to the 15th 
of June, as soon as the panicle has become yellow and 
the grain firm. Where a large acreage is to be cut, how- 
ever, the harvesting is begun sooner. Some of the seed 
is gathered by means of hand strippers, but most of it 
by stripping machines, of which various forms have been 
devised. The most efficient machines are rotary strippers 
in which a revolving cylinder studded with rows of nails 
brushes the heads against a platform and into a receptacle 
behind. 

The stripped heads must be carefully cured in order 
to secure the best seed. This is commonly done in the 
open, preferably where the ground has a hard smooth 
surface. The seed is piled in long, narrow ricks, pref- 
erably not over 18 inches high, which must be frequently 
turned to accelerate curing and to prevent heating. 
During the first few days each rick should be turned at 
least three times a day. The viability of the seed is 
greatly affected by the care used in curing, and lack of 

M 



162 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



care in this process more than anything else injures the 
quahty of tlie seed. Pieters and Brown found that freshly 
gathered seed when put in ricks would heat to a tempera- 
ture of 130 to 140 degrees in less than 16 hours, and that 
this temperature would entirely destroy the vitality in 
16 hours or less. 

The seed is mostly cleaned at warehouses with special 
cleaning machinery. The yield averages about 15 bushels 

per acre, and 25 bush- 
els is the maximum. 

At the Kentucky Ex- 
periment Station, seeds 
were gathered every 
day or two in June 
from the time the first 
ripened. Germination 
tests gave poorer re- 
sults for those gathered 
very early and very 
late, the best being 
those harvested be- 
tween June 14 and 
June 25. 

151. Seed. — Ken- 
tucky blue-grass seed 
is frequently adulter- 
ated with the cheaper Canada blue-grass (Fig. 14). This 
is always an adulteration, as the former matures several 
weeks before the latter. Pure Kentucky blue-grass is 
brownish-straw in color, in the bulk considerably darker 
than Canada blue-grass seed. The percentage of chaff 
varies greatly, according to the methods of cleaning used, 
but the best seed has 10 to 20 per cent of chaff. 




Fig. 14. 



of seeds of Ken- 
and Canada blue- 



Mixtur 
tucky blue-grass (a) 
grass (b). The Kentucky blue-grass seeds 
are broadest at the center, pointed and 
have a distinct ridge on each side. Canada 
blue-grass seed are mostly broadest near 
one end, blunt and smooth on the sides. 



BL UE-GRA SSES 163 

The purity of commercial seed is commonly 70-80 and 
rarely 85 per cent. The viability may reach 80-90, 
but usually is only 65-80 per cent. In some cases very 
fresh seeds refuse to germinate. The seeds begin to 
sprout under favorable conditions in 9 or 10 days, but 
many require a longer time, up to 28 days. Light has no 
effect on germination, but rapid alternation of tempera- 
tures is necessar}^ for the best results. 

The legal weight of a bushel is 14 pounds, but the 
weight varies from 14 to 28 pounds. One pound contains, 
according to different authorities, 2,400,000 seeds (Ste- 
bler); 1,860,000 (Hunter); 2,185,000 (Hunt); 3,888,000 
(Lawson). 

Among the objectionable weed seeds that may occur 
in Kentucky blue-grass are buckhorn, yellow dock, and if 
adulterated with Canada blue-grass, it may contain 
Canada thistle. 

152. Hybrids. — Natural hybrids of Poa pratensis with 
P. trivialis and with P. compressa have been described in 
Europe, but both are very rare. Their parentage has not 
been proven by breeding, but is surmised from structural 
characters and the association with their supposed parents. 

G. W. Ohver of the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
has successfully hybridized Poa pratensis with P. arachni- 
fera, Texas blue-grass, using the pistillate plants of the 
latter. The hybrids show much diversity and produce 
but little seed due to defective stamens. 

153. Canada blue-grass (Poa compressa). Botany. — 
Canada blue-grass, also known as Virginia blue-grass, 
flatstem bluegrass and wire-grass, is native to the Old 
World, ranging throughout temperate Europe and Asia 
Minor. It was found near Quebec as early as 1792 by 
Michaux and in 1823 by Richardson on the upper Saskatch- 



164 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

ewan. Its wide distribution at so early a date is re- 
markable, but it is quite certain that the grass is not 
native. 

Typical Poa compressa bears 2 to 3 leaves on a culm, 
a panicle about 2 inches long with the spikelets 5- to 8- 
flowerecl. It produces abundant rootstocks, and forms 
a tough sod. The compressed culms are evenly scattered 
and are remarkable for remaining green long after the 
seeds have matured. The whole herbage is pale and 
glaucous. 

154. Seed. — Canada blue-grass seed closely resembles 
that of Kentucky blue-grass, and as it is cheaper, it has 
been much used to adulterate the latter. As Canada 
thistles are often present in fields of Canada blue-grass, 
the presence of the prickles of the thistles is sometimes 
used to identify the seed, but neither this nor the paler 
color of the seed is wholly reliable. The best character 
to distinguish the two seeds is the less prominent veins 
of the lemma in the Canada blue-grass (Fig. 14). The seed 
weighs 14 to 24 pounds to the bushel. 

The seed is much cheaper than Kentucky blue-grass 
seed and much more viable as a rule, the average germina- 
tion being about 85 per cent. The seed is produced mainly 
in Ontario and about 650,000 pounds a year were imported 
into the United States up to 1909. 

155. Culture. — In Ontario, where Canada blue-grass 
is most abundant, this grass is seldom sown as it usually 
appears spontaneously. It is often plentiful enough in 
wheat stubble so that good fall pasturage is afforded. 
Such stands are often left either to be cut for hay or for 
seed. 

The yield of hay is not heavy, usually about 1 ton and 
never more than 1^ tons, but it bears an excellent reputa- 




ilf r 



'U 









PLATE I — P,,.,, "^ ^ -— — ^ I 



BLUE-G BASSES 165 

tion as horse feed, and commands nearly as good a price 
as timothy. It is said, however, to have a tendency to 
produce cohc if fed in large quantities. 

There is no particular difficulty in harvesting the seed 
of Canada blue-grass, strippers not being required as in 
the case of Kentucky blue-grass. The grass is cut when 
the heads appear golden, and handled much like hay, 
but it should be put into small shocks promptly, as other- 
wise much seed may be lost by shattering. The seed is 
thrashed in an ordinary grain separator, but special screens 
are necessary. Canada blue-grass is ripe when wheat is 
harvested and some seed is secured when the wheat is 
thrashed by using a special screen to separate it from the 
chaff and trash. The average yield of seed an acre is 
about 200 pounds and the maximum about 500 pounds. 

Canada blue-grass is seldom sown pure, but when thus 
planted about 15 pounds of seed per acre is required. On 
poor rocky or clay soils Canada blue-grass will probably 
give as great a return in pasturage as any single grass, 
and its planting under such conditions is desirable. 

156. Adaptations. — Canada blue-grass is adapted to 
quite the same range of climatic conditions as Kentucky 
blue-grass, but is more resistant to summer heat and to 
drought. It is most abundant in eastern Canada and the 
northeastern United States, but it occurs south as far as 
South Carolina and central Alabama, and west to the 
Pacific Coast. 

Unlike Kentucky blue-grass, it is most abundant in 
poor soils, whether gravels, thin soil over rock or clay. 
This is probably not so much preference as inability to 
cope with other grasses on good soils. It is often abundant 
on the sides of cuts where the subsoil is exposed, while on 
the good surface soil other grasses occur. 



166 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

It is more drought resistant than Kentucky blue-grass 
but less well adapted to growing in moist or wet soils. 
It is primarily a grass of the open and does not succeed 
well in shade. 

157. Importance. — Canada blue-grass is important 
from its ability to grow on poor soils and produce small 
crops of hay or good pasturage under conditions where 
other grasses will scarcely thrive. Under such conditions 
it is valuable and its good points are being more generally 
recognized. It has suffered in reputation somewhat, 
because its seed was used to adulterate Kentucky blue- 
grass and because it has generally been compared to that 
grass. Its main usefulness, however, is under conditions 
which Kentucky blue-grass will not endure. 

It is primarily a pasture grass and is grazed upon by 
all herbivorous animals. It not only will withstand very 
close grazing but, on account of the stems remaining green, 
can be used as reserve pasturage late in the season. Cattle 
raisers who are familiar with Canada blue-grass consider 
it excellent for fattening. 

At the present time Canada blue-grass is most important 
in Ontario and New York, but it is abundant in Penn- 
sylvania, Virginia, Maryland and West Virginia, and is 
spreading on the so-called scab lands of the Columbia 
River Basin. In other countries, Canada blue-grass is 
of very little importance. 

, 158. Texas blue-grass (Poa arachnifera) . — Texas 
blue-grass is a native perennial species in southern Texas 
and adjacent Oklahoma. In a general way its habits are 
similar to Kentucky blue-grass, but the plants are larger 
and coarser. Unlike any other cultivated species of Poa, 
the plants are unisexual, that is, some are pistillate and 
some are staminate. The base of each lemma has a tuft 



MEADOW-GRASSES 167 

of long hairs and so the seed must be gathered by stripping 
after the manner of Kentucky blue-grass. 

Texas blue-grass has been tested at many of the ex- 
periment stations, especially in the South and as far north 
as Maryland. It makes rather more growth than Ken- 
tucky blue-grass, and being more bunchy in habit it does 
not make as satisfactory a lawn. Furthermore, the grass 
is not aggressive and in time is crowded out by other 
grasses. This peculiarity as well as the high cost of the 
seed has prevented any large use of Texas blue-grass, and 
commercial seed can be found only in small quantities. 

Oliver has endeavored to combine the good qualities 
of Texas blue-grass and Kentucky blue-grass ]:)y hybridiz- 
ing. Hybrids were easily secured by placing pollen of 
Kentuck}^ blue-grass on the flowers of the female plant 
of Texas blue-grass. The hybrids were very diverse in 
appearance, most of them having rootstocks like their 
parents, but some were entirely without rhizomes. The 
variability in the leaf was also very marked, some of the 
forms having much broader leaves than either parent. 
Unfortunately, none of the numerous hybrids secured 
showed any better seed habits than those of Texas blue- 
grass, and most of them were inferior in this respect. 

THE MEADOW-GRASSES 

159. Fowl meadow-grass (Poa triflora). — This grass is 
also know^n botanically as Poa serotina and Poa flava and 
agriculturally as late meadow-grass and fertile meadow- 
grass. It is native to both Eurasia and North America, 
and on this continent ranges from Alaska to California, 
Colorado, Iowa and Pennsylvania. 

Unlike the other cultivated Poas, this species is adapted 
to wet meadows, but does not grow in standing water. 



168 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

It is intolerant to high summer heat and, therefore, does 
not thrive southwards. In the area to which it is adapted 
it has much the same requirements as redtop and is equally 
late in blooming. 

Fowl meadow-grass "was one of the early grasses to 
receive agricultural attention in America, being considered 
by Jared Ehot in 1747 as the best grass hay in eastern 
Massachusetts and decidedly superior to timothy. It 
first attracted attention on the wet meadows along the 
Charles River, where it appeared spontaneously and 
covered extensive low meadows. It was supposed to have 
been introduced there by water fowl, whence its common 
name. On suitable land old American reports give the 
yield as 1 to 3 tons of hay an acre, and state that it can 
be cut at any time from June till October. 

This grass has recently been investigated at the Ver- 
mont Experiment Station. It occurs abundantly along 
Otter Creek on natural meadows which have never been 
plowed and which yield 1 to 2 tons an acre. These 
meadows are overflowed each year, a condition adverse 
to timothy and red clover, which are absent, but some 
redtop and Glyceria americana are mixed with the fowl 
meadow-grass. 

In plot experiments on bottom land, fowl meadow-grass 
was found slow to start, hke Kentucky blue-grass, and the 
grass was not fully estabhshed until the third season. In 
1899 a yield of 4400 pounds hay and 136 pounds seed 
an acre was obtained. Late cuttings when the seed is 
ripe give a considerably larger yield than if cut when in 
bloom. The yields of timothy under the same conditions 
have been about 25 per cent smaller. 

On account of the slow growth of fowl meadow-grass, 
it is advised that it be sown in mixture with other grasses, 



MEADOW-GBASSES 169 

as follows : timothy, 10 pounds ; alsike, 6 pounds ; redtop, 
recleaned, 4 pounds ; fowl meadow-grass, 10 pounds. 
The experimental plots that were sown to redtop and to 
timothy were nearly pure fowl meadow-grass after 3 
years. 

It is probable that results comparable to those secured 
in Vermont could be obtained in any similar lands in the 
northern tier of states and in Canada. 

Commercial seed is grown in Europe and is generally 
of very poor quality. In the Vermont experiments a yield 
of 6 bushels an acre, weighing 114 pounds, was secured, 
and in one instance a small plot yielded at the rate of 
7 bushels an acre. 

160. Rough-stalked meadow-grass {Poa trivialis). — 
This European grass is very similar to Kentucky blue- 
grass, but may be distinguished by the roughness of the 
stalk near the panicle, rough leaves and absence of root- 
stocks. In Europe it is of more importance than Ken- 
tucky blue-grass, but in America has scarcely ever been 
cultivated and, though sparingly naturalized, has no- 
where become abundant. 

It is adapted to moist soils and moist climates. In 
England it was one of the first grasses to be cultivated. 
In moist mountain regions, it is often the common pasture 
grass. If cut for hay, a very good yield is often obtained, 
but the aftermath is very scant. 

There is little likehhood that this grass will be found 
valuable in America, except perhaps in the Pacific North- 
west. European authorities advise sowing 26 pounds 
of seed to the acre. 

The commercial seed is harvested mainly in the neigh- 
borhood of Hamburg, Germany, and in Denmark. Yields 
as high as 400 pounds to the acre are reported. 



170 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

161. Wood meadow-grass {Poa nemoralis). — This 
grass is native both to Eurasia and North America, 
but immensely variable. In North America, it is native 
from Alaska to Colorado in the mountains, and south- 
eastward to Minnesota and Pennsylvania. The agri- 
cultural seed is, however, gathered almost wholly in 
Germany, and mainly from wild growing grass in wood- 
lands. Wood meadow-grass is remarkably adapted to 
growing in shade and, being fine in texture, is much em- 
ployed for shady lawns. It is, however, far more averse 
to heat than Kentucky blue-grass and rarely succeeds 
south of its natural range. 

REDTOP 

162. Names. — Redtop is so called in most of the 
United States, but in Pennsylvania and the South is also 
known as herd's-grass, which same name in the New 
England States is applied to timothy. In Europe it is 
commonly called fiorin, and in England is also known as 
bent-grass. Its scientific name is usually given by seeds- 
men as Agrostis alba, but sometimes A. vulgaris, A. dispar 
or A. capillar is. 

163. Botany. — The botanical relationship of redtop 
and the numerous closely related forms is a most complex 
problem. Many botanists consider Agrostis alba and 
A. vulgaris a single species, but others hold them distinct. 
The character most relied upon is the ligule, this being 
very small in vulgaris, but well developed in alba. Nu- 
merous varieties of each have been described by European 
botanists. The ordinary cultivated forms of redtop are 
referable to A. alba, which is native to the Old World, 
occurring over most of Europe and Asia ; and in Africa is 
found in the northern parts and in Abyssinia. It is very 



REDTOP 171 

doubtful if it is endemic in North America. Agrostis 
vulgaris is, however, certainly native to North America, 
one form being abundant in the coastal lands of New 
England and known as '' Rhode Island Bent." 

Other native American varieties are aristata which 
occurs from Maine to Virginia and differs by having an 
awn rising from near the base of the lemma ; and maritima 
which has long, decumbent, rooting stems, occurring along 
the coast from Newfoundland to Delaware. 

The cultivated varieties are only three ; namely, com- 
mon redtop, which is typical Agrostis alba L. ; Rhode 
Island Bent, which is the native American form of Agi^os- 
tis vulgaris Withering ; and Creeping Bent of Europe, 
commonly sold as Agrostis stolonifera, but it is not the 
plant so named by Linnseus. 

164. Agricultural history. — Redtop was first brought 
into prominence by Dr. William Richardson in Ireland in 
1807, though apparently this was not its first cultivation, 
as Vianne states that it was grown in France in 1761. It 
was early introduced into the United States, but no record 
before 1807 has been found. 

165. Adaptations. — Redtop has probably a wider 
range of adaptation to climatic and soil conditions than 
any other cultivated grass. It succeeds well over most 
of the United States except the drier regions and the ex- 
treme South. In resistance to cold it is at least equal to 
timothy, and it withstands summer heat much better. 
At Copper Center, Alaska, it matures seed. 

It thrives best on moist or wet soils, and will even grow 
vigorously in the bottom of shallow ponds, which later 
become dry. When thus growing aquatically, the leaf 
blades float on the surface and the grass is not readily 
recognized. Provided moisture is abundant, it does not 



172 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

show marked preference for soil types, but does best in 
clay loams and loams. Notwithstanding its marked 
adaptation to wet land, it will withstand considerable 
drought and on poor uplands, even if somewhat sandy, will 
thrive better than most other grasses. 

It is not well adapted to shade, and is rarely found in 
such situations. 

166. Characteristics. — Redtop, if grown isolated, 
makes tufts 1 to 3 feet in diameter, usually about 30 
inches high, but sometimes 3J feet. The vigorous root- 
stocks are shallow and mostly 2 to 6 inches long. These 
enable redtop to make a dense turf even in pure cultures. 
If kept closely mown the leaves become much finer, and 
a very satisfactory lawn results. Wherever the grass is 
thin, the rootstocks promptly become more vigorous and 
bear broader leaves. 

The grass blooms somewhat later than timothy, so 
that mixtures of the two cut when timothy is in bloom, 
rarely show any panicles of redtop. 

On account of its characteristics, redtop is perhaps better 
adapted to pasturing than for hay. It is a common ele- 
ment of all northern pastures, but most abundant where 
the ground is wet or poor. In pasturing experiments, 
cattle usually show preference to all other cultivated 
grasses over redtop. 

167. Importance. — Redtop is probably the third or 
fourth most important perennial grass in America, being 
exceeded by timothy, Kentucky blue-grass and perhaps 
Bermuda. It makes up more or less of the pasturage 
over the whole area to which it is adapted, especially on 
wet and on non-calcareous soils. As a hay crop it is 
most important in New England, where it comprises most 
of the 1,100,999 acres of " other tame or cultivated grasses." 



REDTOP 173 

On the poor clayey soils in southern Illinois it succeeds 
better than any other similar grass. 

168. Variability. — Cultivated redtop is very variable 
and many strikingly different individuals can readily be 
selected. The leaves may be very narrow or broad, dark 
bluish green or pale green in color ; the panicles large or 
small, purple or green ; the rootstocks very abundant and 
vigorous, or few, or even wanting. In recent times some 
attention has been given to the selection of improved 
strains, but none of these have yet become agriculturally 
established. 

169. Regional strains. — Commercial seed is produced 
only in the United States and in Germany. Stebler and 
Volkart report experiments in Switzerland, in which the 
German strain showed far greater ability than the Ameri- 
can to maintain itself. The American strain almost dis- 
appeared after 7 years, while the German strain increased 
markedly and still held its own after 9 years. 

170. Culture. — Redtop, like Kentucky blue-grass, is 
such an aggressive grass that it usually comes in naturally 
where once established. It is rarely sown alone and 
usually but a small proportion of seed is included in mix- 
tures. There is little accurate information available as 
to rates of seeding when sown alone, different writers rec- 
ommending from 6 to 50 pounds, but not always specify- 
ing the quality. Of good " recleaned " seed 10 pounds 
per acre should be ample, and a correspondingly larger 
amount if of inferior grades. It may be sown in the same 
manner as timothy. Stebler and Volkart recommend for 
Switzerland 14 pounds per acre, germinating 72 per cent. 

Redtop is also an exceedingly good grass for lawns 
if sown thickly and kept closely mowed, under which 
conditions the leaves are fine and the turf dense. 



174 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



171. Yield of hay. — The yields of redtop hay on wet 
lands are usually better than those of any other hay grass. 
It is, however, much better used in mixture, especially 
with timothy and alsike. If grown alone the return is as 
a rule less than that of timothy. American experiment 
stations have reported yields in pounds to the acre as 
follows: Ohio, 5634; Kansas, 3399; Illinois, 3600; 
Virginia (Arhngton Farm), 3200; Michigan (Upper 
Peninsula), 3493 ; Ontario (Guelph), 5580 ; North Caro- 
lina, 2940. 

Vianne in France records hay yields of 6290 pounds 
to the acre ; Sinclair in England of 7600 pounds from the 
first cutting and 2640 pounds from the second ; Nielsen 
and Lindhard in Denmark secured as the average of 7 plot 

trials 3000 pounds the first 
year, 2980 pounds the sec- 
ond year, 2200 pounds the 
third year. 

172. Seed-production. 
— Commercial redtop seed 
is grown mainly in south- 
ern Illinois. The seed was 
formerly harvested by 
cutting the crop with a 
mowing machine, curing 
thoroughly and then 
thrashing. In recent years 
rotary strippers, such as 
are used for Kentucky 
blue-grass, have been em- 
ployed. After the seed is thus stripped, the crop is cut for 
hay and sometimes is thrashed to secure the seed left by 
the strippers. 




Fig. 15. — Seeds of redtop repre- 
senting the "fancy" grade of the 
trade, a, different views of seeds hav- 
ing the white, papery, inner chaff ; 
b, two views of a grain, or kernel, with 
the inner chaff removed ; c, the same, 
nearly natural size. 



REDTOP 



175 



The recleaning of the seed and its separation into 
grades is done by factories with special cleaning ma- 
chines. 

The annual yield in Illinois has been estimated as 
700,000 pounds from 50,000 acres. 

173. Seed. — Commercial seed of redtop occurs in 



1. " FsLYicy," ^'choice" or 
Chaff" seed. 



" recleaned " ; 
" Recleaned " 




three grades 

2. " Unhulled " ; and 3. ' 
seed consists of free grains 
and those covered with the 
inner silver}^ chaff. " Un- 
hulled " seed is that which 
is still inclosed in the outer 
glumes. " Chaff " is mainly 
the empty scales and fine 
rubbish, with but a small 
percentage of good seed. 

Recleaned or fancy seed 
should have a purity of 95- 
98 per cent, and a similar 
percentage of viability. 
The germination remains 
good for several years. It 
is sometimes adulterated 
with timothy seed. Among the common weed seeds pres- 
ent as impurities are oxeye daisy and buckhorn. 

The legal weight to the bushel is 14 pounds, but the 
actual weight ranges from 12 to 40 pounds. The number 
of seeds to one pound varies with the quality. Thus, it is 
given as 4,135,900 by the Ilhnois Experiment Station; 
6,400,000 by the North Carohna Experiment Station; 
and 7,800,000 by Hunt, quoting from Lawson. Stebler 
gives the number as 603,000, evidently an error. 



Fig. 16. — Chaff of redtop seed. 
a, whole spikelets usually devoid of 
seed in "chaffy" grades; b, sepa- 
rated scales of the same ; a and b 
represent the outer chaff of the seed, 
(Enlarged.) 



CHAPTER IX 

ORCHARD-GRASS, TALL OAT-GRASS AND 
BROME-GRASSES 

Timothy is to such preponderating extent the most im- 
portant hay grass in America that other valuable sorts 
have been relatively much neglected. The species dis- 
cussed here have somewhat different adaptations than 
timothy, and hence are potentially important in regions 
where timothy does not thrive well. Orchard -grass and 
tall oat-grass are well adapted to a broad belt south of the 
area in which timothy succeeds best. Brome-grass is es- 
pecially valuable in temperate regions of small rainfall. 

ORCHARD-GKASS 

174. Description. — Orchard-grass, in England com- 
monly called cock's-foot or rough cock's-foot, is a long- 
lived, perennial grass forming dense circular tufts which 
may become a foot or more in diameter. It is a typical 
bunch grass, producing no stolons, and hence never forms 
a complete sod. The pecuhar inflorescence is characteris- 
tic and cannot be mistaken for any other cultivated grass. 

175. Botany. — Orchard-grass {Dadylis glomerata) is 
native throughout Europe excepting the northernmost 
portions, much of the northern half of Asia, and in Africa 
in the mountains of Algeria and in Madeira and the 
Canaries. Botanists have distinguished a considerable 
number of varieties. Among the more noteworthy are 
hispanica, which has the branches of the panicle not 

176 



ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 177 



stalked but flower-bearing to the base ; maritima, with 
the panicle dark violet ; pendida, with a looser, somewhat 
drooping panicle ; ahbreviata, with a short compact panicle ; 
and ciliata, which 
differs from all the 
above in having hairy 
sheaths and lemmas. 

Very closely related 
species are Dadylis 
aschersoniana, which 
has creeping root- 
stocks and mostly 
6-flowered spikelets, 
and Dadylis altaica. 

None of these have 
become agricultural 
grasses, but variety 
pendula was at one 
time supplied by Vil- 
morin in France. 

176. Agricultural 
history. — Orchard- 
grass was cultivated 
in Virginia before 
1760, in which year 
seed was sent to Eng- 
land. Its culture in Fig. 17. — Orchard-grass (Dadylis 
continental Europe be- Olomerata). a, spikelet; b, floret ; c, sta- 
- , , . mens and pistil ; d, ligule ; e, section of 

gan about the begm- node, 
ning of the nine- 
teenth century and became important by 1850. At 
the present time it is cultivated in nearly all temper- 
ate regions. 

N 




178 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

177. Climatic adaptations. — While orchard-grass is 
strictly a temperate grass, it will withstand a greater 
quantity of heat than timothy, and is also more easily 
injured by winter cold. In the United States, it is culti- 
vated more abundantly southward than northward. This 
distribution is due partly to competition with timothy and 
partly from the fact that fall-sown stands of orchard- 
grass are uncertain. This uncertainty has been ascribed 
to late frosts rather than winter cold, but the evidence 
is not satisfactory. Orchard-grass begins its growth in 
spring much earlier than most grasses, which is one reason 
why the late spring frosts are injurious. 

At Copper Center, Alaska, it was entirely winter-killed, 
while a considerable percentage of timothy survived. 

At Fort Vermilion, x\lberta, orchard-grass planted in 
spring was completely killed the succeeding winter when 
the minimum reached was 23° below zero Fahrenheit. 

178. Soil preferences. — While orchard-grass will grow 
in all types of soils, it ordinarily does not succeed well in 
sands or muck. It is best adapted to clays or clay loams. 
It is not averse to wet soils, but prefers a moderate amount 
of moisture. Fair success can be had when the rainfall 
is rather scanty, as it is somewhat more resistant to drought 
than is timothy. 

179. Adaptation to shade. — Orchard-grass succeeds so 
well in shady places that this peculiarity has given rise 
to one of its common names. Its adaptation to shade has 
been ascribed as due partly to its great leafiness and partly 
to its early growth before the trees become leafy. How- 
ever, it succeeds apparently as well in the shade of ever- 
greens as of deciduous trees. 

Stebler in Switzerland shaded artificially one portion of 
a field sown to a mixture of grasses and determined each 



ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 179 

year the percentage of each grass. The percentage of 
orchard-grass each year was as follows : — ■ 





1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


Not shaded .... 
Shaded 


0.5 
1.7 


6.6 
21.1 


17.6 
34.4 


21.8 
46.3 


23.3 
40.9 


10.0 

37.8 



The percentage increase of the orchard-grass due to 
the gradual disappearance of the other grasses was more 
marked in the shaded than in the unshaded area. 

180. Variability. — Orchard-grass is exceedingly vari- 
able, not less so than timothy. Numerous varieties can 
easily be selected anywhere from thin fields and from the 
roadsides. Cross-pollination is the rule so that such 
individual plants usually give rise to diverse progeny. 
There can be no question that pure strains much superior 
to the ordinary mixed progeny can easily be isolated. It 
is doubtful, however, if the importance of this grass in the 
United States is sufficient to justify selection and the care 
necessary to keep strains pure. 

181. Advantages and disadvantages. — To illustrate 
the strong and weak points of orchard-grass it may be 
compared with timothy. (3rchard-grass is better adapted 
to conditions southward and less so to those northward ; 
it is less well suited to being grown in pure cultures, owing 
to its bunchy habit ; it can be cut for hay much earlier ; 
it becomes woody after full bloom much more rapidly and 
markedly ; the cost of seed per acre is about five times as 
large; the spring growth is more abundant and much 
earher; the aftermath is much greater, often producing 
a second crop of hay ; the plants are more persistent both 
in meadows and pastures. 



180 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

In average yield of hay and in feeding value, there 
probably is but little difference, but the market pref- 
erence in America is strongly in favor of timothy. 

182. Importance. — Orchard-grass is probably fourth 
or fifth in importance among cultivated perennial hay 
grasses in America. As a hay grass it should be second 
or third in importance, as southward it is much better 
adapted than timothy, and should be more generally 
employed, especially in mixtures. 

At present, orchard-grass is most important in Kentucky, 
southern Indiana, Iowa, North Carolina, Virginia, West 
Virginia, Maryland and western Oregon. 

The relative importance of orchard-grass is much higher 
in Europe than in America. 

183. Seeding of orchard-grass. — Seed may be sown 
both in the fall and in very early spring. If sown in the 
fall, early seedings are preferable as this much lessens the 
danger of winter-killing. In the seed-growing sections, it is 
the common practice to sow the grass in February in 
fall-sown wheat, and it is often sown at the same time on 
ground which has been in corn during the previous season. 
It may also be sown with spring oats. Whether sown in 
fall or in spring, the first year's growth rarely yields a 
crop of hay, but can be utilized only as pasturage. On 
this account, as well as the danger of winter-killing, 
spring seedings are in general to be preferred. 

When planting for a seed crop, thin seeding is desirable, 
and for this purpose one bushel of seed, which weighs 
about 14 pounds, is commonly used. If planted for hay, 
double this quantity is very satisfactory as the plants are 
thicker and the hay less coarse. The seed does not feed 
well through a drill and so is sown by hand or with a 
wheelbarrow or other type of seeder. Very shallow cover- 



ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 181 

ing of the seed apparently gives the best results, and some- 
times it is broadcasted with subsequent harrowing. 

For Ohio Williams recommends 20 pounds per acre for 
hay, and 12 to 20 pounds if for seed production. 

Werner recommends 35 pounds in Germany, and Stebler 
the same amount in Switzerland. 

184. Life history. — If sown in spring orchard-grass 
does not come to bloom the first season. Its development 
is very slow as compared to other grasses. In mixtures 
it may not bloom till the third season. 

Orchard-grass is very long-lived and persists indefi- 
nitely when once planted. Individual plants are known 
to five eight years and they will probably live much longer. 

Where orchard-grass seed-production is carried on, 
fields are usually allowed to lay five to seven years. 

185. Harvesting for hay. — Orchard-grass should be 
cut for hay as soon as it reaches full bloom. If permitted 
to stand longer, the stems become much more woody. 
Its period of maturity is usually three weeks to a month 
earlier than that of timothy. This earher date of harvest- 
ing is advantageous in the case of land badly infested with 
oxeye daisy and fleabane, as these weeds have not ripened 
their seed at the time orchard-grass hay is cut, and con- 
sequently the use of orchard-grass tends to free the land 
of these weeds. 

After the first crop of hay has been harvested orchard- 
grass produces a rapid and abundant second growth, 
which consists largely of leaves, the culms being com- 
paratively few. This second growth is much greater than 
that of any other hay grass adapted to temperate condi- 
tions. The yield of hay from the second crop is usually 
smaller than the first. 

Even when the first crop is cut for seed, the second 



182 FOEAOE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

growth often makes a fair crop of hay by the end of 
August or early September. 

186. Yields of hay. — While orchard-grass is best 
suited for sowing in mixture, it will when seeded alone 
usually yield about as well as timothy. 

The yield of dry matter at the Illinois Experiment 
Station was found to be 2642 pounds an acre when in full 
bloom and 3232 when the seeds were in the milk. 

Yields in pounds per acre have been reported by Ameri- 
can experiment stations as follows : Ohio, 2197 ; Kansas, 
2809; ininois, 2800; Michigan, 2080; Idaho, 5280; 
Arhngton Farm, Virginia, 2880 ; North Carohna, 1554 ; 
Arkansas, 3188. 

In Europe yields have been reported as follows : Sinclair 
in England, 11,685 pounds; Pinckert in Germany, 3520 
pounds ; Vianne in France, 15,570 pounds. 

Orchard-grass was grown continuously on two plots at 
the Michigan Experiment Station from 1897 to 1905. The 
yield by acre in pounds on the two plots was as follows : — 



Year 


1897 


1898 


1899 


1900 


1901 


1902 


1903 


1904 


1905 


Yields .... 1 


3000 
3000 


258 
183 


1750 
2250 


2760 
3620 


2150 

2900 


1500 
2150 


2230 

2970 


2250 
2330 


1640 
2620 



After plowing up the sod in 1906, the plots were cropped 
to corn in 1906, oats in 1907 and wheat in 1908. Heavier 
yields were secured on these plots than on plots that had 
been in fallow continuously or on others which had been 
planted to regular rotations mostly including clover. 
The yield of the orchard-grass for the last seven years was 
quite uniform. 

For yields under irrigation see Par. 41. 



ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 183 

187. Harvesting orchard-grass for seed. — In the 

United States most of the seed is grown in the counties of 
Jefferson, Oldham and Shelby in Kentucky, Clark County, 
Indiana, CHnton and Highland Counties, Ohio, and in 
northern Virginia. The average yield an acre, as reported 
bj^ the better farmers, is ten to twelve bushels. Har- 
vesting usually begins about the middle of June, the crop 
being ready for cutting as soon as the seeds become straw- 
colored. This is easily detected by bending the heads 
in the palm of the hand, and if some of the seeds shatter 
out, it is ready to cut. The grass is practically always 
harvested with an ordinary grain binder, care being taken 
to make small bundles so as to facilitate rapid curing. 
The bundles are commonly placed three in a shock, which 
is tied with two bands of straw so as to hold the bundles 
firmly and prevent the seed from shattering. Depending 
on the weather, the shocks are left in the field up to four 
weeks before they are cured thoroughly. Thrashing 
usually takes place directly from the field. As a rule the 
grass is cut high so as to avoid low-growing weeds, and 
also because the undergrowth is thus left for subsequent 
pasturing or to be cut as hay. The thrashing is done with 
an ordinary grain thrasher, but using special riddles and 
but little wind. 

188. Weeds. — The most troublesome weeds in orchard- 
grass fields in the states where the seed is mainly grown 
are whiteweed {Erigeron strigosus and E. annuus) ; sorrel 
{Rumex acetosella) ; oxeye daisy {Chrysanthemum Leucan- 
themum) ; milfoil (Achillcea Millefolium) ; and buckhorn 
{Plantago lanceolata). 

Some seed growers cut out these weeds with a hoe 
before the crop of orchard-grass is harvested, but this 
method is expensive. Spraying with weed-kiUing chem- 



184 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

icals has been used to a small extent, but is not very 
satisfactory. 

A much better method is to use sheep to keep the weeds 
down. These animals may be turned in the field as soon 
as the grass begins to grow in spring, and allowed to remain 
until harvest time, but many growers remove them in 
early May. As the orchard-grass matures, the sheep eat 
but little of it, but graze principally on the weeds, especially 
whiteweed. They do very little damage to the grass 
when it is dry but should be removed during wet weather. 
Even when sheep stampede through a field nearly ripe 
but few culms are broken. This is due to the bunching 
habit of the orchard-grass which leaves room between 
the plants for the feet of the sheep, and the stout 
stems are seldom injured. Cattle are not nearly as 
satisfactory as sheep, for they trample down too much 
of the grass. 

189. Seed. — Orchard-grass seed is often adulterated 
with that of meadow fescue and perennial rye-grass, both 
of which resemble it rather closely, and both of which are 
much cheaper. Orchard-grass seed, however, may be 
readily distinguished from these two by the slightly 
smaller size and the awn-pointed apex of the lemma, 
which in both of the others is merely acute (Fig. 18). 

The best quahty of seed reaches a purity of 95-98 per 
cent and a viability of 98-99 per cent. Germination is 
complete in 14 days. The seed deteriorates but little 
the first year, but thereafter more rapidly, so that when 
four years old it is worthless. 

A bushel weighs from 12 to 22 pounds, the usual legal 
weight being 14 pounds. One pound contains, according 
to different authorities, 579,500 seeds (Stebler), 426,000 
seeds (Hunter), 400,000 to 480,000 seeds (Hunt). 



ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 185 

190. Sources of seed. — Commercial seed of orchard- 
grass is most largely grown in the United States and in 
New Zealand, but some seed is produced in Europe 
(southern France, German}^, Hungary, Holland, etc.). 
New Zealand seed is sometimes imported into the United 
States in considerable quantity. No American ' experi- 
ments, however, have been reported as to the relative 




Fig. 18. — Mixture of seeds of orchard-grass (a), meadow fescue grass 
(b) and English rye-grass (c). The orchard-grass seeds are distinguished 
from the others by their slender, curved form. The meadow fescue and 
rye-grass seeds are distinguished by the difference in the section of the 
seed-cluster axis (rachilla segment) which each bears. (Enlarged.) 

yield obtained from seed from different sources. In plots 
grown side by side in Virginia the New Zealand strain was 
distinctly shorter and apparently inferior by about 20 
per cent. 

Under Swiss conditions, Stebler reports that French 
seed gives the most satisfactory results, but American is 
scarcely inferior, though a Httle later ; in two out of five 
trials the American outyielded the French strain. Seed 



186 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTUBE 

from Switzerland, Holland and Germany gave in each 
case practically as good results as that from France. 
The New Zealand strain proved inferior to the French in 
six trials. It proved to be slower in growth and somewhat 
less winter hardy. 

At three experiment stations in Denmark, tests were 
conducted for three years to determine the amount of hay 
produced from seed from different sources ; namely, 
United States, Denmark, Germany, France, Sweden, 
Australia and New Zealand. The American strain was 
slightly superior to the European at two of the stations. 
The Australian and New Zealand strains showed a smaller 
yield by about 20 per cent. 

191. Utilization of stubble and aftermath. — Among 
orchard-grass seed growers, there is much difference of 
opinion as to the utilization of the stubble and aftermath, 
especially as to its effect upon the next year's seed crop. 
A common practice is to cut the stubble and aftermath 
in the latter part of August and to utilize it for hay, but 
some farmers allow it to lie on the field as a mulch. Some 
farmers cut the stubble as soon as possible after seed har- 
vest, while others believe it is best to leave both the stubble 
and aftermath uncut. 

Pasturing the stubble and aftermath is a very common 
practice and if done judiciously, especially with sheep, is 
believed not only not to lessen the next season's crop but 
even to cause an increase. 

192. Mixtures. — Orchard-grass, excepting for seed 
production, is seldom sown alone as the bunchy nature 
of the grass does not fully utilize the ground. One of the 
most satisfactory mixtures is orchard-grass, tall meadow 
oat-grass and alsike clover, in the following proportions : 
10 pounds of orchard-grass, 20 pounds of tall meadow oat- 



ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 187 

grass, 4 pounds of alsike clover. The tall meadow oat- 
grass matures with the orchard-grass, and at this time a 
satisfactory growth of the alsike clover has also been made. 
On much of the area south of the Potomac and Ohio 
rivers, this mixture yields much more satisfactory crops 
than timothy and red clover. 

Another mixture commonly used is orchard-grass and 
red clover, which is very satisfactory wherever red clover 
succeeds well. In this mixture, orchard-grass is sown at 
the usual rate and about 10 pounds of red clover used to 
the acre. This mixture is often used where the orchard- 
grass is grown mainly for seed, as the clover interferes but 
little with the harvesting of the seed crop, and adds greatly 
to the subsequent crop of hay or pasturage. 

193. Pasturage value. — Orchard-grass should be a 
constituent of pastures wherever this grass will grow. 
Especially is this true on account of its ability to grow in 
cool weather, as it will furnish the earliest and latest 
pasturage in the season. Furthermore, it succeeds best 
under heavy grazing, and produces a continuous succession 
of 3^oung leaves. The most serious objection to it as a 
pasture grass is that, during unfavorable soil conditions, 
the plants are apt to be pulled out of the ground by pastur- 
ing animals. Where it forms only a portion of the pasture 
mixture, however, there is but little difficulty from this 
source. 

Cattle graze upon it quite as readily as upon timothy, 
but prefer Kentucky blue-grass to both. 

194. Feed value. — No American feeding experiments 
with orchard-grass hay have been reported. Judged 
wholly by its chemical analysis and digestibihty, orchard- 
grass should be considerably more nutritious than timothy 
hay, and many farmers consider that this is the case 



188 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

both for horses and cows. There is considerable market 
prejudice against it, however, on account of its relative 
coarseness. 

195. Value as a soil binder. — Orchard-grass is com- 
monly recognized as exceedingly valuable to plant in 
places where the soil is Ukely to wash. Thus, planted in 
rills with rye as a nurse crop, it has proven very effective 
in preventing further washing. Its effectiveness is ap- 
parently more due to the large tussocks that it makes than 
to any other one character. 

Orchard-grass has deeper roots than most grasses. 
Ten Eyck at the Kansas Experiment Station found that 
the root system of a large plant extended to a depth of 3| 
feet. The root mass was very dense in the top 6 inches, 
but below 10 inches rapidly became thinner. 

At the Arkansas Experiment Station the total weight 
of the roots was found to be equal to the tops. Fifty 
per cent of the roots were in the top 12 inches and 90 per 
cent in the top 30 inches. 

196. Improvement by selection. — Orchard-grass is 
decidedly variable, apparently more so than timothy. 
The contrasting characters are easily seen when vegeta- 
tively propagated rows are grown in a nursery. Marked 
differences are apparent in height, coarseness, leafiness, 
color, earliness, number of culms, length of leaves, etc. 

In recent years the study of these variations with the 
object of developing improved strains has received at- 
tention both in America and in Europe. 

197. Pests. — Orchard-grass is but little troubled by 
insects or diseases. Occasionally rust is found in small 
quantity. A very common trouble, however, is the tip 
burn of the leaves, a characteristic trouble of the grass, 
which seems not to have been scientifically investigated. 



ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 189 



TALL OAT-GRASS 

198. Names. — Tall oat-grass {Arrhenatherum elatius) 
is known also as tall meadow oat-grass, tall oat-grass, 
false oat-grass, French 
rye-grass and, in the 
South, evergreen grass. 
The French name, fro- 
mental, has become 
much used in Germany 
and Switzerland, and is 
advocated by Stebler 
as a convenient and 
distinctive name for 
general adoption. 
Synonyms of the sci- 
entific name are Ar- 
rhenatherum avenaceum 
and Avena elatior. 

199. Botany. — Tall 
oat-grass is native to 
southern Europe and 
northern Africa, but 
ranges eastward into 
Persia. It is quite 
variable, eight varie- 
ties being considered 
distinguishable by Eu- 
ropean botanists. 

The most noteworthy variety is tuherosa which bears 
a number of bulbs at base like a string of small onions and 
is therefore called Onion Couch. This is sparingly intro- 
duced in the United States. In Europe it occurs mainly 




Fig. 19. — Tall oat-grass {Arrhena- 
therum elatius). a, spikelet; b, the two 
florets. 



190 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

on poor pasture lands and not in fields of tall oat-grass. 
Under some conditions it has been found in Great Britain 
troublesome as a weed. Some botanists have considered 
that the bulbs are abnormal and produced by a parasite, 
but the variety breeds true to seed. Stebler and Volkart 
report that in small plots it yielded less than half as much 
hay as tall oat-grass. 

Other varieties are suhhirsuta with sparsely hairy 
sheaths ; hiaristata with both florets of each spikelet bear- 
ing awns ; flavescens with the spikelets yellow instead of 
pale green ; and hermaphrodita with the spikelets some- 
times 3-flowered, and all the florets perfect. 

200. Agricultural history. — Tall oat-grass was ad- 
vocated for culture by Kalm in Sweden in 1747. Accord- 
ing to Schreber, however, it was first cultivated by Abbe 
Miroudet in France, in 1760, but Stebler and Volkart state 
that it was probably cultivated in southern France before 
that time and it was commended by Stapfer for cultivation 
in Switzerland in 1762. It was cultivated in Massachu- 
setts as early as 1807 and in South Carolina in 1824. 

201. Adaptations. — Tall oat-grass is adapted to 
about the same climatic conditions as orchard-grass ; 
that is, it will not endure as much cold as timothy, but 
will withstand greater summer heat. 

It is one of the most drought resistant of all cultivated 
grasses, being excelled in this respect only by brome-grass 
and western wheat-grass. Wet soils are distinctly in- 
jurious and tall oat-grass will not endure on such land. 
It does well under irrigation, provided the subsoil be well 
drained. 

It thrives best on loose, deep loams and calcareous 
soils, but succeeds also on sandy and gravelly soils. Per- 
haps no other perennial grass will yield as well on very 



ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 191 

poor land. Nevertheless its yields are greatly increased 
by the use of fertihzers. 

It does not grow well in shade, but rapidly disappears. 
For this reason, it should never be sown with a nurse crop, 
as both the thickness and the vigor of the stand is much 
lessened thereby. For the same reason it is injured in 
mixtures by any grass which shades the ground too much. 

Tall oat-grass is primarily a hay grass. Frequent 
cuttings reduce the total yield greatly, and under pasturing 
the return is comparatively small. 

In the Southern States tall oat-grass remains green the 
whole year, whence it has been called evergreen grass. 
It languishes, however, in midsummer in the moist region 
near the Gulf of Mexico. 

202. Importance. — Tall oat-grass is not an important 
grass in America. In continental Europe it is considered 
one of the best grasses and is commonly grown, especially 
in France. In England it has never been much used. 
To some extent the grass is cultivated in Australia. In 
the United States it is mostly employed on poor or gravelly 
land and near the southern limit of timothy production. 
In experiments continued over several years at Arlington 
Farm, Virginia, a mixture of this grass with orchard-grass 
and alsike clover was found to be far more productive on 
relatively poor land than any other perennial grass or 
grass mixture. This mixture has recently been received 
with much favor in South Carolina, and for much of the 
area south of the timothy region is probably the best 
combination of perennial grasses for hay meadows. For 
this reason the grass seems destined to increase in im- 
portance. 

203. Characteristics. — Tall oat-grass is a long-hved, 
deep-rooted perennial. It is strictly a bunch grass, all 



192 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIB CULTVUE 

the new shoots being produced intravaginally and grow- 
ing perfectly erect. The lowermost joint may, however, 
be elbowed, due to resistance encountered by the young 
shoot when developing through the old tuft. The stems 
grow to a height of about 4 feet, rarely 6 feet. The 
panicle is pyramidal, loose and pale green, more nearly 
resembling that of the oat than any other cultivated per- 
ennial grass. The spikelets bear two florets, the low^er 
bearing a long, twisted and elbowed awn from its base. 

In mixtures where tall oat is not shaded by other grasses, 
it maintains itself well for five years or even more. The 
hay is somewhat bitter in taste and on this and other 
accounts it is better grown in mixtures. At Arlington 
Farm, Virginia, however, horses ate pure hay of tall oat- 
grass readily, and most American experiment stations 
have reported that animals eat it well. Its supposed un- 
palatability is probably exaggerated and, as in similar cases, 
it is presumably easy to accustom animals to its taste. 

204. Seeding. — Tall oat-grass, whether sown alone 
or in mixtures, is best sown in the spring in the North, 
but in the South early fall seeding is preferable. In Ten- 
nessee the best time is the latter half of September or else 
March and April. A well-prepared firm seed bed is most 
desirable. The seed is rather large and deep seeding is 
important, about 1 inch in moist soil and IJ inches when 
dry. 

European authorities recommend for one acre, if sown 
alone, 80 pounds of seed germinating 50 per cent ; that is, 
about 40 pounds of viable seed. 

205. Hay. — Tall oat-grass should be cut for hay 
promptly when it blooms, as thereafter the stems rapidly 
become more woody. It cures into hay more readily 
than most other grasses. 



ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 193 

On rich soils it may be cut as many as three or four times 
in a season, but on poor soils but once or twice. The first 
cutting is nearly always the largest. The yield the second 
year is nearly always the heaviest. 

European authorities have recorded the following hay 
yields to the acre : Pinckert, 6340 pounds secured from two 
cuttings ; Sprengel, 8800 pounds. Karmrodt in Germany 
secured from the same plot in four successive years yields 
at the rate respectively of 6468, 15,268, 10,384 and 7524 
pounds to the acre. 

Yields to the acre in pounds have been reported from 
American experiment stations as follows : North Carolina, 
2994 ; Louisiana, 3400 ; Kentucky, 8160 ; North Dakota, 
3220 ; South Dakota, 2083 ; Ohio, 2247, 6-year average ; 
Kansas, 2453, 4-year average ; Illinois, 5480 ; Arlington 
Farm, Virginia, 3720 ; Michigan (Upper ' Peninsula), 
5680; Utah, 2691 ; Idaho, 5760; Ontario (Guelph), 5520, 
7-year average. 

In general about 3 pounds of the green grass make 
1 pound of hay. 

206. Seed-production. — The seed of tall oat-grass is 
mostly grown in Europe (France, Tyrol, Switzerland, 
Bohemia) but some is produced in Virginia. Spillman 
states that at the Washington Experiment Station it 
shattered very readily within 24 hours after it began to 
ripen. On the contrary, Stebler says the growing of seed 
in Europe is very profitable because it yields well, is 
easily harvested and commands a good price. It is ready 
to cut for seed when the panicles turn yellowish and the 
grain can be broken by the finger nail. It is better, 
however, to cut too early than too late to avoid loss by 
shattering. If a binder is used in harvesting, early cutting 
is necessary. 

o 



194 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

The yield of seed to the acre in Europe is given by Pinck- 
ert as 880 pounds; by Walker, as 88 to 132 pounds; 
by Michalowski as the average of 4 years, 328 pounds ; 
by Jung, 880 pounds, when grown on a large scale ; and 
by Werner as 724 to 880 pounds. 

Tall oat-grass is frequently infested with a smut (Usti- 
lago perennans) which destroys the attacked seeds. 

207. Seed. — The seed of tall oat-grass weighs 10 to 16 
pounds per bushel. It loses viability quite rapidly after 
the first year, and by the fourth year is practically 
worthless. In common with other grass seeds for which 
there is small demand in America, seed is quite hkely to be 
old or else mixed with old seeds. 

The percentage of impurities in tall oat-grass seed is 
rather large, on the average 20 per cent, but the other 
seeds are commonly those of other grasses which occur 
in fields, such as orchard-grass and meadow fescue, but 
there is often considerable cockle (Agrostemma githago) 
present. One pound contains about 150,000 (138,000 to 
159,000) seeds. 

208. Mixtures. — Tall oat-grass should rarely be sown 
alone unless for the purpose of seed production. Among 
the reasons for growing it in mixtures are its bunch habit, 
its relative lack of palatability, the cost of the seed and 
the fact that it is primarily a top grass. It must not, 
however, be sown in mixtures containing much Italian 
rye-grass or other grasses which grow more rapidly and 
thus injure the tall oat seedlings by shading; nor should 
it be sown with grasses that mature distinctly earlier 
or later, as tall oat-grass should be cut when in bloom. 
It is early and blooms about 10 days sooner than red 
clover. European authorities recommend that only 10- 
20 per cent of tall oat-grass should be used in mixtures, 



ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 195 

but a larger percentage has not been found disadvantageous 
in America. 

The best grasses and clovers for mixing with tall oat- 
grass are orchard-grass, meadow fescue, alsike and red 
clover. In the region south of the best area for timothy 
and red clover the so-called Arlington mixture has been 
found especially good, the amount indicated to be sown 
on one acre : — 

Orchard-grass 10 pounds 

Tall oat-grass 20 pounds 

Alsike clover 4 pounds 

BROME-GRASS 

209. Names and description. — Brome-grass (Bromus 
inermis) is also called smooth brome awnless brome, 
Hungarian brome, Russian brome and Austrian brome. 

It is a long-hved perennial grass, enduring according 
to Werner 12 to 13 years. Each plant produces many 
underground rootstocks and thus mats a foot or more in 
diameter are formed. Single plants under favorable 
conditions grow to a height of about 4 feet, and each one 
may possess 100 to 200 culms. The basal leaves are 
numerous, and the lower half of each culm may bear 5 or 
6 leaves. 

After two or three years it forms a dense sod and there- 
after without special treatment the plants form but few 
culms. This characteristic makes it better suited for 
permanent pastures than for haj^ production. 

210. Botany. — Bromus inermis is native to much of 
Europe and extends through Siberia to China. Botani- 
cally it is not very variable, though five or six varieties 
have been deemed worthy of botanical designations. 
Among these varieties are pellitus with lower leaves and 



196 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



sheaths hairy; divaricatus with triangular pyramidal 
panicles and small spikelets ; pauciflorus with small 3-4- 
flowered spikelets ; and aristatus with the lemma short- 

awned. Very closely 
related but perhaps 
distinct is Bromus 
Reimanni with short 
leaves and small 
panicles. 

211. Agricultural 
history. — Brome- 
grass was first culti- 
A^ated, according to 
Schreber, in 1769 as 
a pasture grass. It 
is not, however, an 
important grass in 
Europe, being grown 
mainly in Hungary 
and Russia. 

It was introduced 
into the United States 
prior to 1884 by the 
California Experi- 
ment Station. It 

Fig. 20.— Brome-grass {Bromus inermis) . haS met with most 

verSview"' "°^'"' ^o"-'^'^' "^" ■ '■ «<"-^'- favor ill the region 

west of the 95th 
meridian and north of latitude 36°, especially as a grass 
for unirrigated lands. In North and South Dakota 
and in the Columbia Basin brome-grass attained con- 
siderable prominence, but in recent years its cultiva- 
tion has slowly diminished. More of it has been 




ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 197 

grown in the Dakotas and in Manitoba than in any 
other region. 

212. Adaptations. — Brome-grass is especially adapted 
to regions of rather low rainfall and moderate summer 
temperatures. High summer temperatures and humidity 
are both adverse. In trial plots the grass has succeeded 
well enough in the region of timothy and red clover, but 
has not attained popularity. 

It prefers rich loams and clay loams, but has succeeded 
well in sandy soils. No other cultivated perennial grass 
has shown a higher degree of drought resistance. 

Brome endures winter cold remarkably well and no 
instances of winter injury have been reported even in 
North Dakota. At Kenai, Alaska, it succeeds fairly well 
except in very moist summers. 

213. Depth of roots. — Shepperd at the North Dakota 
Experiment Station found that one-year-old plants had 
roots 4 feet deep, and two-year-old plants 5| feet. At the 
same station b^ome roots were found to be 5 to 6 feet 
deep when timothy roots reached only SJ feet. 

Ten Eyck at the Kansas Experiment Station found roots 
to a depth of 4i feet, at which depth solid rock prevented 
further penetration, but the roots had spread over the rock 
in a large mass. 

214. Method of seeding. — In the regions where it is 
most grown, l^rome-grass is nearly always seeded in early 
spring on a well-prepared seed bed. Fall plowing in some 
places is preferable as it insures a better supply of moisture. 
The surface of the seed bed should be well firmed by harrow- 
ing, and rolling is also desirable. 

Where the rainfall is sufficient the grass is often sown 
with a nurse crop — wheat, oats, barley or spelt. The 
grass seed does not feed well through a drill, so it is usually 



198 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

broadcasted after the grain has been drilled, and then 
covered by harrowing crosswise to the drill rows. 

In regions where fall-sown timothy will succeed, brome- 
grass may be sown in fall either with or without wheat, 
or the brome-grass may be sown alone in late summer. 

At the Nebraska Experiment Station in 1902 brome- 
grass was sown March 24, April 8 and 21, May 7 and 19, 
August 7 and 19, September 15, October 1 and 21. All 
produced good stands except the last seeding which was 
winter-killed. 

215. Rate of seeding brome-grass. — The usual rate 
of seeding is 1 bushel (14 pounds) to the acre, but under 
favorable conditions 10 pounds is sufficient. Where only 
pasture is desired a double quantity of seed is often used, 
as a dense stand will permit of grazing sooner. At the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station 32 pounds to the acre gave 
much better results than 16 or 24 pounds, but in all cases 
the yield was small. The North Dakota and Nebraska 
Experiment Stations recommend 20 pounds to the acre. 

According to Werner, brome is sown in Europe at the 
rate of 55 kg. to the hectare ; that is, 48 pounds to the acre. 

216. Time to cut for hay. — Brome-grass is usually 
cut for hay just after full bloom at the stage called " the 
purple." There is a considerable period, however, in 
which it may be cut with apparently little effect on the hay. 

Under favorable conditions of moisture two cuttings 
can be obtained, the first in June or July, the second in 
September. The second crop produces but few culms, 
and the yield is much smaller. 

The hay cures less readily than timothy and is more 
easily injured by unfavorable weather. 

At the North Dakota Experiment Station brome- 
grass cut at three different dates, June 21, June 25 and 



ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 199 

July 9, gave respectively 5637, 6456 and 7632 pounds 
to the acre green substance, or 2290, 2462 and 2802 pounds 
dry substance. At the first date the grass was in bloom ; 
at the second in the milk stage ; and at the third fully 
mature. 

217. Hay. — The yield of hay from brome-grass is 
usually small the first year, good the second year and best 
the third year. Thereafter it falls off rapidly unless given 
special treatment. The average yield of hay is about 
1 J tons to the acre, the maximum about 3J tons. Yields to 
the acre have been reported from many experiment sta- 
tions, as follows : Ohio, 2900 pounds in 1905, 5960 pounds 
in 1910 ; Wisconsin, 4200 pounds ; Michigan (Upper 
Peninsula) , 4295 and 3285 pounds ; Nebraska, 4640 pounds 
in 1900, 2640 in 1903 ; Kansas, 6016 pounds, average for 
4 years ; Colorado (San Luis Valley), 3713 pounds ; Idaho, 
5600 pounds ; Wyoming, 4400 pounds ; South Dakota, 
third, fourth and fifth seasons, 3720, 3632 and 7680 pounds 
respectively; North Dakota, Fargo, 2520 pounds, and 
Dickinson, 2520 pounds, average for 2 years ; Indian 
Head, Saskatchewan, average of 18 yields in 10 years, 
2622 pounds ; Brandon, Manitoba, average of 6 yields 
in 4 years, 4100 pounds. 

For yield under irrigation see Par. 41. 

218. Fertilizers. — But few fertilizer experiments have 
been made on brome-grass. Barnyard manure is nearly 
always helpful, if available. Manured and unmanured 
plots yielded respectively 2012 and 1242 pounds per acre 
at Dickinson, N.D., and 5500 and 3920 pounds per acre 
at Fargo, N.D. 

At the Nebraska Experiment Station a small plot fer- 
tilized at the rate of about 6 tons of rotted horse manure 
and 320 pounds nitrate of soda in spring yielded the fol- 



200 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

lowing year at the rate of 5666 pounds to the acre against 
2166 for a check plot. 

At the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, 
400 pounds superphosphate to the acre gave a greatly in- 
creased yield. 

219. Treatment of meadows. — In the Dakotas and 
adjacent Canada, brome-grass fields as a rule yield the 
first season nothing but a small amount of pasturage ; 
the second year, a good crop of hay ; the third year, a 
maximum crop ; the fourth year, a decidedly diminished 
yield ; and thereafter, but little unless special treatment 
is given. 

In the Columbia Basin a good amount of pasture is 
secured the first year, the second year the grass yields 
but moderately if cut for hay, but bears a heavy crop of 
seed. The third year the hay crop is at a maximum. 

Brome-grass, after the third or fourth year, falls off 
in yield rapidly on account of what is called a " sod- 
bound " condition, apparently due in part to the spread- 
ing of the grass, and in part to the increasing compactness 
of the soil. Loosening the soil thoroughly will renew the 
vigor of the grass. On loose or sandy soil harrowing with 
disk or spike-tooth harrow is fairly effective. On heavier 
soils plowing is necessary, the time depending largely on 
the soil moisture conditions. But little of the grass is 
killed by plowing. Several methods have been used : — • 

1. Plowing about 2 inches deep in spring, a method 
advocated by the Saskatchewan Experiment Farm. 

2. Plowing after the hay crop is harvested, advocated 
by the Brandon, Manitoba, Experiment Farm. 

3. Plowing in spring and seeding to oats or other grain, 
to which some brome seed may be added. In this way a 
crop of grain is secured and a full grass crop the next year. 



0RCHARD-GBAS8, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 201 

4. Breaking the sod in fall, and sowing oats or other 
small grain in spring. The next season a full crop of 
grass is obtained. 

220. Seed-production. — The seed of brome-grass is 
mainly grown in North and South Dakota, and in Mani- 
toba and Saskatchewan. It is cut at the stage called 
*' brown '' when the seed is fully formed and nearly ripe. 
It is usually harvested with a binder, more rarely with 
a header and occasionally with a mowing machine. 
When a binder is used, the grass is cut as high as possible 
and the bundles then shocked for curing. The tall stubble 
is then cut for hay and yields about one ton per acre. 
Harvesting the seed with a header leaves a larger amount 
of the grass for hay. 

The seed is thrashed with an ordinary thrashing machine, 
using special riddles, and with the wind shut off to prevent 
the seed from blowing over. The seed usually contains 
fragments of straw which cannot all be separated even 
with a fanning mill. 

Seed yields average from about 250 to 350 pounds to the 
acre. At the Saskatchewan Experimental Farm as high 
as 600 pounds to the acre were secured. At the Iowa Ex- 
periment Station 300 pounds were obtained. At North 
Platte, Nebraska, three plots yielded respectively 157, 
200 and 700 pounds to the acre, the first plot being on land 
previously in alfalfa. 

221. Seed. — Although brome-grass seed is easily 
distinguished, it is sometimes adulterated with meadow 
fescue, perennial rye-grass and cheat. European seed 
sometimes contains quack-grass as an impurity, and the 
seeds of this are very similar to western wheat-grass, 
which may occur in American seed. 

The best commercial brome-grass seed attains a purity 



202 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

of 98-99 per cent, and a viability of 90-95 per cent. 
Germination tests should continue 14 days. 

The seed weighs 12 to 20 pounds to the bushel. One 
pound contains 137,000 seeds, according to Stebler. 

222. Pasture value. — Brome-grass is better adapted 
for pasture purposes than for hay. Under semi-arid con- 
ditions in the Northwest, brome-grass is without question 
the best pasture grass for cultivated lands yet discovered. 
Its ability to withstand drought is as great as that of 
alfalfa. Other characters that emphasize its pasture 
value, especially on sandy lands, are its sod producing 
habit, which enables it to withstand trampling and pre- 
vents uprooting. 

Comparative tests have shown that it is one of the most 
palatable of all grasses, cattle grazing upon it in preference 
even to blue-grass. It begins to grow very early in the 
spring and continues growth into late fall. After frost 
the leaves become purplish, but the grass does not seem to 
lose in palatability. 

At the North Dakota Experiment Station brome-grass 
cut five times during the season yielded 5538 pounds of 
green grass against 4682 pounds for timothy. 

223. Mixtures. — Several mixtures with brome-grass 
have been employed and are especially satisfactory in 
that they tend to delay the sod-bound condition. Timothy 
has been most used in mixtures, but alfalfa, red clover, 
orchard-grass, slender wheat-grass and meadow fescue 
have also been found desirable. At the Indian Head, 
Saskatchewan, Experimental Farm, a mixture of brome- 
grass and slender wheat-grass has proven particularly 
desirable. 

224. Variability. — Brome-grass, like most other grasses, 
shows a wide range of variability in desirable character- 



ORCHARD-GBASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 203 

istics. Numerous strains have been selected by Leckenby, 
by Evans and by Dillman of the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, by Keyser of the Colorado Experiment 
Station and others. As yet no pure strains have become 
established. 

The progeny of some individuals is quite uniform ; 
in others, very diverse. Keyser has selected 121 distinct 
strains, and has recently published illustrations and notes 
on the most striking. The individual plants vary in 
vigor, height, number of culms, amount of stooling, 
coarseness of stems, color of leaves and panicles, length and 
breadth of leaves and earliness. For pasture purposes 
the most desirable type is apparently one that stools 
vigorously and produces an abundance of leaves. For 
hay purposes, one that is relatively bunchy with tall, 
leafy culms is probably best. 



CHAPTER X 

OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPOR- 
TANCE 

The grasses discussed in this chapter are all important 
in limited areas in America. Most of them thrive well 
over wide regions in which they are little or not at all 
used. With the increasing value and importance of grass 
lands in general agriculture, their greater utilization in the 
future scarcely admits of doubt. 

MEADOW FESCUE {Festuca elatior) 

225. Botany and history. — Meadow fescue occurs 
naturally over all of Europe and in much of temperate 
Asia. The species is not very variable, but eight or more 
varieties based on slight characters have been described 
and named by botanists. From a botanical point of 
view Festuca pratensis Hudson is considered identical 
with F. elatior Linnaeus, but seedsmen use these names as 
the equivalents, respectively, of two cultural varieties ; 
namely, meadow fescue or English blue-grass, and tall 
fescue. The former has also been known as Randall 
grass in the South, but this name has sometimes been 
applied to tall oat-grass, perhaps erroneously. 

Meadow fescue was first recommended for cultivation 
by Kalm in Sweden in 1747. 

204 



OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 205 



226. Characteristics. — Meadow fescue is a tufted, 
deep-rooted, long-lived perennial. It produces an abun- 
dance of dark green leaves on sterile shoots, and 
comparatively few 
culms or fertile 
shoots. The ster- 
ile shoots are 
about 4 times as 
numerous as the 
fertile ones. The 
culms are not very 
leafy, and grow 
commonly to a 
height of 18 to 24 
inches or rarely 
3 feet. Although 
the grass possesses 
no rootstocks it is 
not bunchy, but 
makes a fairly 
good sod. If cut 
either for hay or 
for seed, it pro- 
duces a good 
amount of after- 
math. If cut 
early, the second 
crop will produce 
culms, but other- 
wise mostly leaves. It withstands pasturing very well. 

Old fields of meadow fescue are plowed without diffi- 
culty, and the grass is as readily destroyed as timothy. 

227. Adaptations. — Meadow fescue is adapted to 




Fig. 21. 



Meadow fescue {Festuca elatior). 
a, spikelet. 



206 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

practically the same area as timothy. It prefers rich, 
moist or even wet soils, but does not succeed well in sandy 
land. In shady places it thrives quite as well as orchard- 
grass. It is better adapted for pastures than for meadows, 
but may be used for both purposes. The grass was early 
introduced in the United States and occurs spontaneously 
over the whole region to which it is adapted, but it seems 
never to be abundant under natural conditions. The 
grass is probably just as hardy as timothy and has suc- 
ceeded as far north as Kenai, Alaska. 

228. Importance. — Meadow fescue is a grass of small 
importance in American agriculture, except in eastern 
Kansas, where much seed is grown principally for export 
to Europe. This industry began in 1877 and has developed 
greatly since 1885. In 1903 the jdeld of seed was estimated 
at about 400,000 pounds. Both the yield and the prices 
fluctuate greatly, which has led to a larger utilization of 
the grass crop for hay and pasture. 

In Europe the grass is much employed both in meadow 
and in pasture mixtures. 

229. Seeding. — Meadow fescue should be sown on a 
well-prepared and thoroughly firmed seed bed. It may 
be seeded either in fall or in spring, but early fall is the 
usual time. Nurse crops are seldom used, as if fall sown 
a full crop ensues the first year. The usual rate of seeding 
is 10 to 15 pounds to the acre where a seed crop is desired. 
Heavier seedings are better for hay or for pasture, but 
probably reduce the seed crop. Red clover is some- 
times mixed to improve the subsequent crop of hay or 
pasture. 

In Europe the rate of seeding when sown alone is given 
at 40 pounds per acre by most authorities, but the grass 
is usually sown in mixtures. 



OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 207 

230. Hay. — Meadow fescue should be cut for hay 
just as it comes into bloom, if the best quality is desired. 
The hay is somewhat stemmy and rather laxative. No 
American feeding experiments are reported, but the hay 
is as palatable as timothy, and stockmen consider it more 
fattening for cattle. It is probably too laxative to use 
exclusively as horse feed. 

In favorable moist seasons a crop of hay can be cut 
after one of seed is harvested, but this second crop is 
mainly leaves and but few culms. 

Meadows fertilized with barnyard manure remain 
productive a long time, in some instances as high as 17 
years. It is considered better practice, however, to allow 
the fields to lie but 5 or 6 years. 

The average yield of hay in Kansas is given at 1 to 1.5 
tons to the acre, but on fields fertilized with barnyard 
manure, these yields may be doubled. 

Acre yields have been reported from various experiment 
stations as follows: Ohio, 2100 pounds, average of 6 
years ; Kansas, 2155 pounds, average of 4 years ; Illinois, 
3775 pounds; Michigan (Upper Peninsula), 6070 pounds; 
Utah, 2200 pounds ; Idaho, 5280 pounds ; Arlington 
Farm, Virginia, 3080 pounds; Nebraska, 2400 to 3450 
pounds. 

At the Illinois Experiment Station the yield of dry 
substance was found to be 1424 pounds to the acre when 
in full bloom, and 1954 pounds when the blooming was 
completed. 

European authorities give the yield of hay as ranging 
from 3500 pounds to 10,000 pounds to the acre. 

231. Seed-production. — Meadow fescue should be cut 
for seed as soon as the fields assume a characteristic 
yellowish-brown color and the heads begin to droop from 



208 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

the weight of grain. This is early in July in Kansas. The 
grass is commonly cut with a binder and cured in small 
shocks. Thrashing is done with an ordinary grain 
thrasher, but preferably using a special screen. 

Where a seed crop is the object, it is probably best not 
to pasture in spring. The opinions, as well as the practices, 
of seed growers, however, differ on this point. A moderate 
amount of fall pasturing is probably not injurious to the 
next seed crop. 

The average yield of seed is 8 to 12 bushels, and maxi- 
mum yields about 25 bushels to the acre. First-class seed 
weighs 25 pounds to the bushel. 

The commonest weeds that occur with meadow fescue 
in Kansas are flea bane {Erigeron ramosus), cheat 
{Bromus secalinus) and Japanese cheat (Bronius japoni- 
cus). The last two are particularly objectionable because 
of the difficulty of separating their seeds from the fescue 
seeds. 

Some seed is grown in Europe. Werner states that the 
yields in Germany range from 350 to 700 pounds to the 
acre. 

232. Seed. — Meadow fescue seed often contains a 
small percentage of cheat as an impurity, usually less 
than 5 per cent, but sometimes much more. Perennial 
rye-grass has in some cases been used as an adulterant, 
but this may be distinguished by the joints of the rachilla 
being flattened, slightly wedge shaped and not expanded 
at the apex. 

The best commercial seed attains a purity of 99 per 
cent and a viability of 95-98 per cent. It loses about 
5 per cent viability the first year, but thereafter falls off 
more rapidly, three-year-old seed being nearly value- 
less. 



OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 209 

The weight of a bushel ranges from 15 to 30 pounds. 
One pound contains about 250,000 seeds. 

233. Pasture value. — Meadow fescue is better adapted 
for pasturing than for hay. It begins its growth early 
in the spring, and continues late in the fall. It is quite 
as palatable as Kentucky blue-grass, and stockmen in 
Kansas and Nebraska consider it especially valuable for 
fattening cattle. 

Meadow fescue is well adapted to growing in mixture 
with other grasses, especially in moist lands. It should 
probably be included in such mixtures throughout the 
timothy region. When grown alone, it endures in Kansas 
and Nebraska for 6 to 8 years, or, if manured and well 
cared for, 12 to 15 years. In mixtures it usually maintains 
itself for about five years, but is at its best the second and 
third years. 

234. Pests. — The onl}^ serious enemy that has attacked 
meadow fescue in America is a rust {Puccinia lolii). 
This fungus greatly injures the leaves of the aftermath, 
practically ruining the fall pastures. It also weakens 
the plants so that but few culms are produced the following 
season. 

Tall fescue, when growing adjacent to infected meadow 
fescue, remains almost wholly free from the fungus, but 
is not entirely immune. 

Strebel states that in Germany meadow fescue from 
American seed is far more subject to rust than that from 
German seed. 

235. Hybrids. — Festuca elatior is a remarkable grass 
because of its abihty to make hybrids. Natural hybrids 
with Festuca arundinacea, F. gigantea, Loliuin perenne 
and L. multifiorum have been described. None of these 
has been utihzed agriculturally. 



210 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



OTHER FESCUES 

236. Tall fescue. — Tall fescue differs from meadow 
fescue, mainly in being 6 to 12 inches taller, in its some- 
what looser panicles and in its resistance to rust. The 
seeds of the two are quite indistinguishable, but those of 
tall fescue command a much higher price. From limited 
experiments in Kansas and in Washington, tall fescue 
appears to yield only half as much seed as meadow fescue. 
The culms are comparatively few and the seeds ripen 
unevenly. Owing to its rust resistance, it may replace 
meadow fescue, especially as it yields larger crops of hay 
and the seed commands a higher price. 

At the Ohio Experiment Station tall fescue produced 
in four years on one-twentieth acre plots an average yield 
of 4870 pounds of hay per acre. 

237. Reed fescue (Festuca arundinacea) . — Reed fescue 
is native to Europe, North Africa and western Siberia. 
It is more variable than its close relative, F. elatior, about 
twelve varieties being botanically distinguished in Europe. 

By some botanists it is considered a variety of meadow 
fescue. It is, however, a larger and coarser plant in every 
way. It is perhaps most easily distinguished from tall 
fescue by the upper part of the culm, the lower sheaths 
and upper surface of the stiffer leaves being very scabrous. 

The seed is indistinguishable from tall fescue and it is 
sometimes sold for that by unscrupulous dealers. 

Reed fescue has from time to time been extravagantly 
praised, but has nowhere attained any definite agricultural 
status. 

It produces large yields of hay, which is said to be readily 
eaten by horses and cows. Sheep, however, refuse it, 
both as pasturage and as hay. So far as growth and seed 



OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 211 

production are concerned, it is far superior to both meadow 
fescue and tall fescue, but its lack of palatability has kept 
it from being much used. 

PERENNIAL OR ENGLISH RYE-GRASS {LoUum 'pereune) 

238. Name. — The name ^' rye-grass " or ^' ray- 
grass/' as applied to species of Lolium, did not originate 
from any fancied resemblance to rye. The name is 
probably derived from the French appellation for darnel 
{Lolium temulentum), ''fausse ivraye " or ''ivrai." From 
this the English designation was easily derived by abridg- 
ment into ray or rai = rye. In distinction to Italian 
rye-grass, it is known either as perennial or English rye- 
grass. 

239. Agricultural history. — Perennial rye-grass was 
the first of all perennial grasses to be grown in pure cul- 
tures for forage. According to Sutton it was first mentioned 
in agricultural hterature in England in IGll. Werner 
states that it was first cultivated by Eustace, who lived 
in Oxford about 1681. 

Sinclair refers to a mention of its cultivation in Wor- 
lidge's " Husbandry," published in 1669, but it is not clear 
that Worlidge really referred to perennial rye-grass. 

240. Botany. — Perennial rye-grass occurs naturally 
in all of temperate Asia and in North Africa. Botanists 
have distinguished and named about 10 varieties. Hybrids 
are known with Festuca elatior, Festuca gigantea and 
Lolium multiflorum. 

241. Characteristics. — This rye-grass is a short-lived, 
rapid-growing perennial, hving only two years on poor 
lands, but persisting much longer under favorable con- 
ditions, especially in lawns and pastures. If grown in 
hay mixtures, it is apt to disappear after the first year, as 



212 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

it does not withstand shading by taller grasses. It 
closely resembles Italian rye-grass, but can nearly always 
be distinguished by the awnless lemmas. The young 
leaves are folded and not convolute, as in Italian rye- 
grass. 

242. Adaptations. — This grass is primarily adapted 
to moist regions with mild winter climate. It continues 
to grow at low temperatures and partl}^ on this account 
does not well withstand severe winter cold. In winter 
hardiness it is about equal to orchard-grass. It thrives 
best on rich, moist, well-drained soils, and does not do well 
on sandy soils, nor will it endure standing water near the 
surface. 

243. Importance. — In America, perennial rye-grass 
is of small importance, being seldom employed except as 
an admixture in lawn grasses. It succeeds well enough 
wherever red clover thrives, but has not won for itself 
a place in American agriculture. 

In Europe it is the principal pasture grass, being much 
employed on rich bottom or moor lands, usually in mixture 
with white clover, but it is also used as an element in 
practically all pasture land mixtures. In Europe it holds 
much the position which Kentucky blue-grass does in 
America. As a hay grass it is much inferior in yield to 
Italian rye and other grasses. It is also much cultivated 
in New Zealand. 

244. Agricultural varieties. — Besides being the oldest 
cultivated meadow-grass, perennial rye-grass was also 
the first in which cultural varieties were developed. 
Apparently this grass is little subject to cross-pollina- 
tion and hence varieties are not difficult to maintain. 
Sinclair in 1825 mentions six different named varieties 
in England, and intimates that others were known to him. 



OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDART IMPORTANCE 213 

At the present time English seedsmen advertise several 
varieties of this grass, but in some instances these 
'' varieties " are merely seeds of different weights or sizes 
separated by machinery. . 

245. Culture. — Perennial rye-grass may be sown 
either in the fall or in the spring, the former being pref- 
erable, as but little return can be obtained the first season 
if spring sown. The young plants grow more rapidly 
than most perennial grasses, so that some winter and early 
spring pasturage is afforded, in regions of mild winters. 
If used for pasturage the European practice is to pasture 
heavily enough to keep the culms from developing, as 
animals will not eat these. If grown for hay, one good 
cutting and a second smaller one may be secured. In 
common with most grasses, it should be cut when in full 
bloom. 

In pure cultures perennial rye-grass lasts three or four 
years when cut as hay, and somewhat longer if kept 
closely pastured. In mixed hay meadows it soon dis- 
appears. 

When sown alone, 25 to 35 pounds to the acre is used. 

246. Hay yields. — The hay yield of perennial rye- 
grass is not as large as most hay grasses. In Europe 
Werner gives the average yield to the acre as 3800 pounds, 
but as high as 7400 pounds has been recorded. Karmroclt 
in four successive years on the same plot secured yields 
to the hectare of 6791, 10,432, 9407 and 6653 kilograms, 
the yield being decidedly best in the second and third 
years. 

American experiment station yields to the acre in pounds 
are reported as follows : North Carolina, 5229 ; Kentucky, 
4640 ; Ohio, 1822, 6-year average ; Kansas, 1050, 2-year 
average ; Arlington Farm, Virginia, 2800 ; Utah, 1410 



214 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



and 1560; Idaho, 4000; Ontario (Guelph), 2500, 7-year 

average. 

247. Seed-production. — The seed habits of the grass 

are excellent and under very favorable conditions two 

crops may be harvested in the same season. More usually 

the first is cut for 
hay and the second 
for seed. The grass 
should be cut before 
the seed is fully ripe ; 
otherwise, there is 
some loss by shatter- 
ing. Practically no 
seed is grown in 
America, the com- 
mercial supplies com- 
ing from Europe and 
New Zealand. 

248. Seed. — Seed 
of perennial rye-grass 
is grow^n mainly in 
Scotland and Ire- 
land. None is grown 
in America. On ac- 
count of shattering, 
the crop is cut before 
the seeds are fully 
ripe. Care is neces- 
sary in curing, as, 
if the hay becomes 

heated in drying, the germination of the seed is injured. 

The yield per acre varies from 250 to 500 pounds per 

acre and maximums of 1050 pounds are reported. 




Fig. 22. — Italian rye-grass (Lolium viid- 
tiflorum). a, spikelet; b, c. lemma; d, e, 
seed. 



OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 215 

The seed is recleaned and graded according to weight 
and size. The small seeds are sold as short-seeded rye- 
grass, and sometimes as Pacey's rye-grass. 

ITALIAN RYE-GRASS 

249. Characteristics. — ItaUan rye-grass (Lolium multi- 
fiorum) is readily distinguished from perennial rye-grass 
by the lemma being awned, except in one variety, but in 
all forms the young leaves are convolute, not folded as 
in perennial rye-grass. Agriculturally it is distinguished 
by its short life, — seldom over two years, unless heavily 
manured, — its very rapid growth and prompt recovery 
after cutting. 

250. Botany. — ItaHan rye-grass is native in the region 
about the Mediterranean ; namely, southern Europe, 
northern Africa and Asia Minor. Varieties have been 
distinguished by the awns ; namely, longiaristatum, the 
ordinary long-awned form ; suhmuticum, with the oc- 
casional awns short ; and muticum, which is awnless. 

On the length of life are differentiated Gaudini, the 
annual forms, and perennans, which lives 3-4 years. 
Stebler and Volkart state that the former includes a 
summer annual form, to which belongs Argentine rye- 
grass ; a winter annual form, which includes Rieffel's 
rye-grass, cultivated in Brittany ; and Bailly's rye-grass, 
which differs only in being awnless. The forms which 
endure more than one year are Westernwolth rye-grass, 
which blooms the first season if spring sown, and ordinary 
Italian rye-grass, which does not bloom the first season. 

251. Agricultural history. — Italian rye-grass seems to 
have been first cultivated in northern Italy. It was 
known in Switzerland in 1820 and in France in 1818. 
It was introduced into England in 1831. In France and 



216 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

England especially, it is largely cultivated and furnishes 
the largest proportion of the market hay. Elsewhere in 
Europe it has not become of much importance. 

252. Adaptations. — This rye-grass is primarily adapted 
to moist regions with mild winter temperatures. It 
succeeds well in most of western and southern Europe, 
Argentina and New Zealand. In North America the 
best results have been secured in the Atlantic States, 
practically in the same area as that adapted to crimson 
clover, and on the Pacific Coast. When seeded in fall it 
is not injured by a temperature of — 10° Fahrenheit and 
probably will withstand more severe cold. 

It prefers loam or sandy loam soils, but does fairly well 
on clay loams. It does not endure standing water, but 
on well-drained land is well adapted to irrigation 
farming. 

253. Culture. — Italian rye-grass is mostly sown alone 
at the rate of 35-40 pounds to the acre. It may be sown 
either in fall or in spring, with or without a nurse crop. 
In the south Atlantic States and on the Pacific Coast, fall 
seeding gives the most satisfactory results. The grass is 
not well adapted to sowing in permanent meadows, as it 
disappears after the second year, and sometimes after 
the first. Furthermore, the rye-grass by its rapid early 
growth injures the other grasses so that in some experi- 
ments it has actually reduced the yield. 

In Europe it is sometimes mixed with crimson clover, 
which requires much the same conditions, and the two 
are ready to cut for hay at the same time. A test of this 
mixture at the Delaware Experiment Station gave a good 
yield, and enough of the seed of the ItaHan rye-grass 
shattered to produce a volunteer crop. 

254. Irrigation. — Italian rye-grass succeeds well under 



OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 217 

irrigation, and this method of culture has long been 
pursued in northern Italy. 

At the Utah Experiment Station the following results 
were secured with irrigation : — 



Irrigation water applied, inches 
Total yield of Italian rye-grass, 

pounds 

Yield to the inch of irrigation 

water 



7.50 


15.00 


45.00 


2357 


2218 


3201 


314 


148 


71 



102.00 

2357 

2 



255. Hay yields. — Italian rye-grass is remarkable 
for the number of cuttings that can be made in a season 
and the large total yield under the most favorable con- 
ditions. No other temperate grass grows so rapidly or 
recovers so promptly after cutting. Ordinarily but two 
cuttings can be obtained in a season, the second smaller 
than the first. With abundant moisture and fertilizer, 
however, the grass has yielded 5 cuttings at Christiana, 
Norway ; 5 or 6 in Germany ; and as many as 7 to 9 in 
England and Switzerland, in a single season. It is possible 
that these results might be duplicated west of the Cascade 
Mountains in Oregon, Washington and British Columbia ; 
but in the East, Italian rye-grass languishes under mid- 
summer heat. Werner thinks that the very rapid growth 
of Italian rye-grass when irrigated with liquid manure is 
partly due to the fact that it produces numerous fine roots 
from the lower nodes. The growth is so rapid that a growth 
of 30 inches has been recorded in three weeks. 

Some of the yields recorded for Italian rye-grass in 
Europe border on the marvelous. In England on land 
watered with liquid manure, annual yields of 60 to 120 
tons of grass, or 12 to 20 tons of hay, to the acre are said 



218 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

to have been secured. AVerner records yields of 52,040 
pounds of grass, or 10,560 pounds of hay to the acre near 
Milan, Italy, in 6 cuttings during a season. Karmrodt 
in four successive years secured on the same piece of ground 
hay yields respectively of 8077, 8100, 7058 and 7196 
pounds to the acre. 

Yields reported by American experiment stations are 
very moderate, being in pounds to the acre : Kentucky, 
4480; Missouri, 6800; Ohio, 5120, 6-year average; 
Kansas, 2341, 2-year average; Virginia (Arlington Farm), 
3200 ; North CaroHna, 5557 and 5500. At the Western 
Washington Experiment Station 3 cuttings were secured 
in one season. The Westernwolth variety gave a yield of 
3432 pounds an acre in Prince Edward Island. 

256. Seed-production. — The seeding habits of Italian 
rye-grass are essentially the same as those of perennial rye- 
grass, and the seed is just as easily harvested. It shat- 
ters, however, somewhat more readily and so needs to be 
cut promptly when the seeds are in the late dough stage. 
Commercial seed is grown in Europe, Argentina and New 
Zealand. The average yield in Europe is given at about 
500 pounds an acre, the maximum at double the quantity. 

Seed from various sources gave very much the same 
hay yields according to experiments in Switzerland. 

257. Seed. — The seed of Italian rye-grass is usually 
quite free from weed seeds, and of good viability. At the 
Zurich, Switzerland, Seed Control Station, the average 
purity of 7000 samples has been 95.4 per cent and the 
average germination 82 per cent. Very good seed will 
reach 98 per cent purity and 95 per cent germination. 
Two-year-old seed loses about 25 per cent in viability, 
and three-year-old seed is nearly worthless. Owing to the 
cheapness of the seed it is rarely adulterated. 



OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 219 

Ordinarily it is easily told from perennial rye-grass by 
the awns. If these are absent, the two may be distinguished 
by the palea, this being far more abundantly toothed on 
the margin and more deeply notched in Italian rye-grass. 

The seed weighs 12 to 24 pounds to the bushel, and the 
quality varies accordingly. One pound contains 270,000 
to 285,000 seeds. 

SLENDER WHEAT-GRASS (Agropyvon tenermn) 

258. Slender wheat-grass, known in Canada as western 
rye-grass or Mclvor's rye-grass, is the only example of 
a native North American grass that has proven valuable 
under cultivation. It is widespread, but variable, occur- 
ring abundantly from British Columbia to Manitoba, 
southward to Arizona and Oklahoma and sparingly 
eastward to Pennsylvania and Newfoundland. It is 
strictly a bunch grass with numerous slender erect stems, 
2 to 4 feet high and narrow, flat, rather stiff leaves. 
The spikelets are crowded, scattered in a spike 4 to 6 
inches long. Its root system was found at the North 
Dakota Experiment Station to be quite as deep as that of 
brome-grass, but with fewer roots. 

Slender wheat-grass was first brought into cultivation 
about 1895. It is now grown to a considerable extent in 
Manitoba, Alberta, Saskatchewan and the Dakotas, and 
has given good results in Ontario and Washington. 

Slender wheat-grass is usually seeded in spring. A firm, 
well-prepared seed bed is desirable. The seed may be 
sown broadcast and then harrowed, but is better sown 
with a drill. Good stands have been secured v>^ith 10 to 
15 pounds per acre in Saskatchewan, the heavier seeding 
being best. Elsewhere as high as 30 pounds an acre have 
been used without the stand being too thick. 



220 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



The grass is somewhat subject to a rust {Puccinia 
ruhigo-vera), but otherwise is free from diseases. 

At Indian Head (Saskatchewan) Experimental Farm, 

yields of hay in large 
plots have been re- 
ported since 1901. 
The yields have va- 
ried from 2000 to 
9000 pounds an acre, 
the average of 14 
fields during 9 years 
being 4800 pounds. 
The best yields were 
nearly always secured 
the second season 
after seeding, unless 
the field was reno- 
vated by manuring. 

At Brandon, Man- 
itoba, the average 
yields for 7 years have 
been 4694 pounds an 
acre. 

A plot of one-fourth 
acre at the South 
Dakota Experiment 
Station was not cut 
during the first two 
years. The hay 
yields during the 
three following years were respectively 980, 908 and 1920 
pounds an acre. 

At Guelph, Ontario, it has yielded the most heavily 




a 

Fig. 23. — Slender wheat-grass (Agropy- 
ron tenerum). a, glumes; b, spikelet with 
glumes removed. 



OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 221 

of 15 grasses during trials of 7 years, the average yield 
for the period being on small plots at the rate of 8720 pounds 
an acre. In other trials where the plots were cut 6 times 
each season during 4 years, slender wheat-grass was ex- 
ceeded only by tall oat-grass and orchard-grass. 

Acre yields have been reported from other experiment 
stations as follows : Minnesota, 4700 pounds ; Michigan 
(Upper Peninsula), 5440 pounds; North Dakota (Dick- 
inson), 2950 pounds, 2-year average; Wyoming, 2065 
pounds ; South Dakota " nearly as large yields as brome- 
grass." 

Slender wheat-grass has also given good results in 
mixtures, especially with brome-grass ; with red clover ; 
with red clover and timothy ; and with alfalfa. 

At Brandon, Manitoba, in a feeding experiment com- 
paring slender wheat-grass with brome-grass, 4 steers 
fed brome-grass gained 675 pounds and 4 fed slender 
wheat-grass gained 660 pounds. At Indian Head, Sas- 
katchewan, in a similar trial 5 steers gained 910 pounds 
on brome and 5 others 830 pounds on slender wheat dur- 
ing the same period. 

WESTERN WHEAT-GRASS {Agropyrou occidentale) 

259. Western wheat-grass is also known as blue-stem, 
blue-joint and Colorado blue-stem in various parts of the 
West. It is native over practically the whole region west 
of the 98th meridian from Saskatchewan to Mexico. In a 
general way it resembles slender wheat-grass, but the 
whole herbage is glaucous and the grass spreads by numer- 
ous creeping rootstocks. 

Western wheat-grass is quite resistant both to drought 
and to alkali, but it is seldom abundant except where 
the ground is naturally or artificially irrigated. Under 



222 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

such conditions excellent crops of hay are cut and where 
the grass is well known it has long borne a reputation for 
horse feed equal to that of timothy. In Texas the bottoms 
of shallow desiccated ponds are often covered with a pure 
growth of this grass. In parts of Montana it is only 
necessary to irrigate the land in order to secure a good 
stand of western wheat-grass. After several mowings 
the grass seems to become sod bound, so that rejuvenation 
by disking is necessary. 

Attempts to domesticate this grass have thus far not 
resulted satisfactorily, mainly because the seed is poor in 
quahty even when gathered with the utmost care. While 
this grass possesses creeping rootstocks, it has never been 
reported troublesome as a weed. Its excellent quahties 
make it worthy of further efforts at domestication. 



CHAPTER XI 

PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPOR- 
TANCE 

It has already been pointed out that a number of 
grasses agriculturally utilized in Europe are scarcely at all 
used in America. From the fact that commercial seed is 
abundant, and from their European reputations, their 
exact status as regards America is important to the 
student. Some of them are not at all well adapted to 
American conditions, while others are useful only in very 
restricted areas, or on peculiar soils. 

sheep's fescue and closely related species 

260. Sheep's fescue and its close relatives form in all 
probability the most puzzling group of forms of all the 
grasses. About 70 varieties have been described from 
Europe alone, and these are variously regarded as forms 
of one species or of several. All are densely tufted per- 
ennials with numerous fine, stiff leaves, and slender erect 
culms usually 12 to 18 inches high, but under very favor- 
able conditions taller. The following four varieties are 
used in agriculture : — ■ 

Sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina) with folded leaves not 
broader than thick, .3 to .6 millimeter wide. 

Hard fescue {Festuca ovina duriuscula or Festuca 
duriuscula) differing from the preceding mainly in 

223 



224 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



having the leaves broader than thick, .7 to 1 milhmeter 
wide. 

Various-leaved fescue (Festuca ovina heterophylla or F. 

heterophylla) is some- 
times considered a va- 
riety of Festuca rubra. 
Some of the shoots are 
extravaginal. The 
radical leaf blades are 
long, soft and folded, 
while the culm leaves 
are flat and expanded, 
whence its name. 

Fine-leaved fescue 
(Festuca ovina tenuifo- 
lia or F. tenuifolia of 
the seedsmen ; Festuca 
ovina capillata) has 
very fine leaves and 
awnless lemmas. 

The forms of Festuca 
ovina native to North 
America are much 
fewer than in Europe. 
Typical Festuca ovina 
occurs rather sparingly 
as a native in the 
Rocky Mountains from 
Alberta to New Mex- 
ico, in the Black Hills and about the Great Lakes. Fes- 
tuca ovina ingrata, the " Blue bunchgrass " of the stock- 
men, is an important range plant from British Columbia 
and Alberta to Colorado and Utah, especially in the Co- 




FiG. 24. — Sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina) . 
a, glumes ; b, spikelet with glumes re- 
moved. 



PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 225 

lumbia Basin. Farther south it is replaced by the larger 
Arizona fescue {Festuca ovina arizonica) which extends 
into Mexico. The few other native American forms are 
of no economic importance. 

261. Importance and culture. — None of these fescues 
has as yet attained any considerable importance under 
cultivation in America. Fine-leaved fescue is used 
sparingly in lawn grass mixtures. Various-leaved fescue 
has apparently been tested only in grass gardens. Hard 
fescue also seems to have been grown only in trial grounds, 
as most of the commercial seed is the indistinguishable 
sheep's fescue. Sheep's fescue has become widely in- 
troduced, and on poor stony or sandy land is a valuable 
pasture plant for sheep and deserves more attention for 
such purpose than it has yet received in America. 

Sheep's fescue should be sown only for pasturage and 
only on land that will not produce better grasses, such 
as stony or gravelly hills, and poor sandy soils. It is 
too small to make it worth while to sow for hay on good 
land, even in mixture with other grasses. It possesses 
abundant deep, strong roots, and is never injured by up- 
rooting, nor does it suffer under trampling and close 
grazing. Sheep eat it quite readily, but cattle avoid 
it if other grasses are present. The animals should have 
access to the pastures early in the spring, as the grass is 
more palatable if kept closely grazed. European au- 
thorities state that the grass yields most during the second 
and third years, and should be plowed under after four 
or five years, where possible. 

Sheep's fescue is a northern grass, and not well adapted 

to conditions south of about latitude 40 degrees, except 

in the mountains. Northward its Hmit is that of any 

possible agriculture. On very poor land it will thrive 

Q 



226 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

where no other cultivated grass will grow, but on some- 
what better pasture land should be grown in mixtures 
with redtop, Kentucky blue-grass, Canada blue-grass and 
white clover. In pure cultures, European writers recom- 
mend sowing 28 pounds an acre. 

262. Seed. — Seed of all these fescues is grown in 
Europe. That of sheep's fescue is easily gathered and is 
low in price. 

A bushel weighs ordinarily 10 to 15 pounds, but the 
best quality reaches 30 pounds. One pound contains 
680,000 seeds, according to Stebler. The purity should be 
90 per cent and the viability at least 50 per cent. 

RED FESCUE 

263. Red fescue {Festuca rubra) is best distinguished 
from Festuca ovina by having creeping extravaginal shoots 
or rootstocks. Festuca heterophylla with some extravaginal 
non-creeping shoots is intermediate between the species. 
Red fescue occurs naturally in Europe, Asia and North 
America. It is very variable and numerous varieties have 
been described. In North America it ranges from Green- 
land southward near the seacoast to Virginia, and from 
Alaska to California and New Mexico. One form occurs 
rarely in Tennessee and North Carolina. 

It has never been used under cultivation in North 
America, except as a lawn plant, for which it is well 
adapted in the Northern States and Canada, especially 
on sandy soil near the seacoast. In some of its forms it is 
probably the most beautiful of all lawn grasses. 

Red fescue is a long-lived perennial. In Europe it is 
somewhat used as a pasture plant, especially on moist, 
sandy soils. Under favorable conditions it makes a dense 
growth and may reach a height of two feet or more. In 



PERENNIAL GRASSES OF 3IIN0R IMPORTANCE 227 

such dense growths the lower leaves turn brown readily. 
Hay yields of IJ and 2 tons to the acre are recorded, but 
this is exceptional. It should not be planted where better 
hay grasses can be grown. 

At present the commercial seed supply of red fescue 
comes from Europe. It is often mixed with or adulterated 
with other fescues, where seeds can scarcely be distin- 
guished. In recent years a variety known as Chewing's 
fescue has been exported from New Zealand. It is identical 
with the European, at least for all practical purposes. 
The variety sold as Festuca dumetorum is apparently 
Festuca rubra grandiflora, which is somewhat larger than 
the typical form. 

MEADOW FOXTAIL (Alopecurus praterisis) 

264. Meadow foxtail is native to the temperate portions 
of Europe and Asia. It is quite variable, 6 or 8 varieties 
having been botanically named, but none of these have 
come into agricultural use. 

The culture of meadow foxtail dates from about the 
middle of the eighteenth century, when it was recommended 
by Kalm in Sweden and especially by Schreber in Germany. 

265. Characteristics. — Meadow foxtail is a long-lived 
perennial grass producing loose tufts with numerous 
basal leaves. The rootstocks are comparatively few and 
but 2 to 4 inches long as a rule. The culms grow usually 
to a height of 3 feet, but rarely reach 6 feet. Under very 
favorable conditions three cuttings may be secured in one 
season, but usually only two cuttings. 

It begins its growth very early in spring, more so even 
than sweet vernal-grass. The grass should be cut for 
hay when in full bloom, but it is said to retain its feeding 
value for a considerable time thereafter. 



228 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

266. Adaptations. — Meadow foxtail is adapted primarily 
to moist cool regions. Its culture is prominent in northern 
Europe, but elsewhere it is but little grown. It has no 
particular soil preference so long as. the water supply is 
abundant. This peculiarity makes it well suited to grow- 
ing under irrigation, but it will not withstand drought. 
Though primarily adapted to open meadows it endures 
shade fairly well. Better than any other grass, it with- 
stands cold weather in early spring after its growth has 
begun, and it is perhaps the most winter hardy of any 
cultivated perennial grass. 

267. Culture. — Meadow foxtail is but very little 
grown in North America, most of the data concerning it 
being those obtained at experiment station^. 

In northern Europe it is a favorite hay grass, especially 
for wet meadows. European authorities recommend the 
sowing at the rate of 22 pounds an acre. It is seldom 
sown alone, however, but usually in mixtures with such 
grasses as meadow fescue, timothy and orchard-grass. 
In recent years its improvement by breeding has been 
undertaken at Svalof, Sweden. 

Sinclair in England reports a yield of 8844 pounds an 
acre ; Vianne in France, 8932 pounds. 

Few yields have been reported by American experiment 
stations. At the Michigan (Upper Peninsula) Station it 
gave a yield of 2906 pounds of hay to the acre; at the 
Utah Experiment Station, 1500 pounds ; and the 7-year 
average at Guelph, Ontario, was 3100 pounds an acre. 

268. Seed. — Seed of meadow foxtail is groAvn in Finland, 
Sweden, Denmark and Holland, but most of the com- 
mercial supply is from the first-named country. A small 
amount is also exported from New Zealand. The average 
yield in Europe is said to be about 170 pounds to the acre. 



PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 229 

The results of tests at the Zurich Seed Control Station 
indicate an average purity of 75 per cent and viability 
of 69 per cent. A bushel weighs 6 to 14 pounds. One 
pound contains 907,000 seeds (Stebler) ; 490,000 (Hun- 
ter) ; 1,216,000 (Hunt). 

SWEET VERNAL-GRASS (Anthoxanthum odoratum) 

269. Botany. — Sweet vernal-grass is native to tem- 
perate Europe and Asia and Northwest Africa. It is 
wholly an introduced plant in North America, except 
perhaps in South Greenland. 

Sweet vernal-grass receives its name from the fact that 
the whole plant contains cumarin, giving it a vanilla-like 
odor but also a bitter taste. This is present even in the 
very young seedlings, which may thus be recognized. On 
account of its agreeable odor, sweet vernal-grass has long 
been recommended as a desirable addition in mixed grass 
meadows. It is not clear, however, that the grass with 
its pleasant odor really makes the hay more palatable to 
animals. 

The grass is a long-lived perennial, growing in small, 
dense tufts, the culms reaching a height of 18 to 20 inches 
as a rule. It is one of the earliest grasses to appear in spring, 
but is not much liked by cattle as a pasture grass. It is 
quite resistant to both cold and drought. The best growth 
is made on fertile soil, but sweet vernal-grass will thrive 
on almost any type of soil if not too wet. Near Washing- 
ton, D.C., old neglected pastures on hard clay soils are 
sometimes covered with nearly pure growths of this grass. 

270. Culture. — Sweet vernal-grass has never been 
utilized in America except as it may be a spontaneous 
element in pastures and meadows. Its small growth, 
however, does not commend it. In Europe it is used in 



230 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

small quantities in mixtures with other grasses because 
of the sweet odor it imparts to hay. It is never sown alone 
except in experimental work. Vianne in France records 
hay yields of 1760 to 2640 pounds an acre, but this must 
be far above what can ordinarily be expected. The seed 
is gathered mainly in Germany. At the Zurich Seed 
Control Station, the average purity, of numerous samples 
was found to be about 92 per cent and the average viability 
52 per cent. If sown pure, about 20 pounds of such seed 
are needed to the acre. 

REED CANARY-GRASS {PhalaHs arundinaceo) 

271. Botany and agricultural history. — Reed canary- 
grass is native to the temperate portions of Europe, Asia 
and North America. It grows naturally in wet soils, 
especially river bottoms and lake shores, where it is subject 
to periods of inundation. No botanical varieties have 
been named except the variegated " ribbon grass " of 
the gardens (P. arundinacea pida). The grass is, how- 
ever, decidedly variable, about ten strains having been 
grown for several years at Arlington Farm, Virginia. The 
strains differ in size, coarseness, earliness, breadth of leaves 
and other characters, but all shatter their seeds readily. 

It was first cultivated in England before 1824 and in 
Germany about 1850. It has never been much used in 
America, but is cut for hay where it occurs naturally. 

272. Characteristics. — Reed canary-grass is a long- 
lived, rather coarse perennial grass. It produces numer- 
ous short extravaginal stolons, which at the tip develop 
into upright culms. Each plant finally forms a rather 
dense tussock, one to two feet in diameter. The culms 
are perfectly erect, usually about four to six feet high but 
often taller, and so stout that they never lodge. 



PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 231 

Reed-canary is adapted mostly to cool climates, but 
the ribbon grass form, at least, succeeds well in the Southern 
States. It is never injured by severe winter weather. 
Though naturally a wet land grass, it succeeds well in 
ordinary cultivated land, especially in clays and clay 
loams. It also succeeds well in sand if there be an ade- 
quate moisture supply, but is said not to thrive in peaty 
soils. Owing to its moisture-loving proclivities, it is 
well adapted to irrigation. 

Growth begins early in spring and continues late into 
the fall. Seed is produced in abundance, but shatters 
easil}^ This, perhaps more than anything else, has 
militated against its general use. 

273. Culture. — Reed canary-grass is sparingly culti- 
vated in Europe. If cut before bloom, three cuttings 
may be secured, but only two if allowed to bloom. At 
Arlington Farm, Virginia, the second crop of plants in 
rows is about two-thirds as large as the first. The hay is 
palatable if cut young, and yields of 12,000 to 17,000 
pounds an acre are recorded in Europe. These yields, 
however, are based on ver}^ small plots. 

Seed is gathered by cutting off the panicles before they 
are ripe, and the yield is stated to be about 180 pounds 
an acre. It weighs 44 to 48 pounds to the bushel. 

It is best adapted to pure cultures, as its habits do not 
coincide with other grasses. Commercial seed germinates 
as a rule but 60 per cent, and 20 to 25 pounds to the acre 
should be sown. 

This grass would be worthy of serious attention if its 
seeding habits could be improved. It is possible that 
a strain may be found or developed which will not seriously 
shatter its seed. 



232 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

VELVET-GRASS {Holcus lauatus) 

274. Velvet-grass is also known in England as York- 
shire Fog, and meadow soft-grass. On the North Pacific 
Coast, where it is extraordinarily abundant, it has acquired 
the name " mesquite." 

It is native to temperate Europe, and Asia, and extends 
southward into Algeria and the Canary Islands. It is 
adapted primarily to moist, cool climates, and under such 
conditions is not particular as to soil. In hardiness it is 
much like orchard-grass, but is more injured by late spring 
frosts. It does not endure shade. 

Velvet-grass forms thick, rather high tussocks, which 
make mowing somewhat difficult. The culms are usually 
about 30 inches high. The whole plant is very hairy and 
probably on this account is not readily eaten by animals 
either as hay or pasturage. It possesses very httle sub- 
stance, the hay being probably the most bulky of all 
grasses. Under favorable climatic conditions two cuttings 
of hay may be obtained. European authorities state that 
the hay yield is best in the third year. Sinclair in Eng- 
land records a yield of 6160 pounds an acre, and Vianne 
in France, 6950 pounds. 

In America the grass is utihzed to a slight extent in 
western Virginia, and to a great extent on the North 
Pacific Coast. In all the region west of the Cascade 
Mountains — in Oregon, Washington and British Columbia 
— it is very aggressive, and in the very moist region near 
the ocean occupies the land practically to the exclusion 
of other grasses. Under such circumstances its use is a 
matter of necessity rather than choice, but the returns 
are not unsatisfactory. The grass is best cut when in 
full bloom, at which time the rays of the panicle are 
spreading, but after blooming they become erect. 



PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 233 

Velvet-grass should perhaps never be intentionally sown, 
and at any rate merely as an admixture with other grasses. 

Commercial seed is produced mainly in Denmark, and 
this averages about 63 per cent in purity and 84 per cent 
in germination. New Zealand seed is somewhat better. 
The yield in Germany is given by Werner as about 90 
pounds to the acre, and as the price is very low, the 
financial return is small. European writers recommend 
20 pounds of seed per acre, if sown pure. 

It is sometimes desirable to eradicate velvet-grass so as 
to plant the land to more valuable grasses. To do this 
the grass must be cut before the seed is ripe, generally 
June 10 to 20. About July 1 give the field a thorough 
but shallow disking. Repeat the shallow disking every 
week until August 1, and then treat with a spring-tooth 
harrow and disk again. The shallow cultivation during 
the driest weather will kill the roots and leave the ground 
with a very fine mulch on top and plenty of moisture in 
the subsoil. The land may then be reseeded to clover 
or planted to any other crop desired. 

ERECT BROME {Bromus erectus) 

275. Erect brome, upright brome or meadow brome is 

a perennial species that has long been cultivated in southern 
France and in recent years in other countries. The grass 
is native to much of temperate Europe and Asia and 
Algeria. It is especially adapted to dry calcareous soils 
that are too shallow for sainfoin, and on such soils is said 
to give better results than any other grass, either for 
pasture or for hay. It bears the same relation to poor, 
dry, chalky soils that sheep's fescue does to poor sandy 
soils. On good land it has no place, as other grasses 
produce larger and better crops. 



234 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Both the hay and the pasturage are of mediocre quahty, 
but the fields last many years on suitable calcareous soils. 
The yield is best the second year and the plants bloom 
but once each season. It is rarely sown alone, but usually 
mixed with sainfoin if the land is good enough. 

The seed weighs about 15 pounds to the bushel, and 
50 pounds to the acre is sown. It is often adulterated 
with the screenings of tall oat-grass. 

Erect brome has been but little tried in America. At 
the Kansas Experiment Station yields of 1844 and 1720 
pounds per acre were obtained in 1904 and 1905 respec- 
tively. At the Michigan Upper Peninsula Substation a 
small plot yielded at the rate of 3706 pounds an acre. 

YELLOW OAT-GRASS {Trisetum flavescens) 

276. Yellow oat-grass, also known as golden oat-grass, 
is native over much of temperate Europe and Asia and in 
North Africa, and several botanical varieties are described. 
It is of only secondary importance in European agriculture, 
but is practically unknown in America. It is a loosely 
tufted, long-lived perennial. It is used almost wholly as 
an admixture with other grasses. It was apparently first 
brought into cultivation in England before 1785. The 
seed, which is mainly grown in the south of France and in 
Tyrol, is scarce and expensive, and this has probably pre- 
vented the greater use of the grass. 

Yellow oat-grass is decidedly drought resistant and 
adapted only to well-drained soil. It is said to prefer cal- 
careous soils rich in humus. It is seldom grown in pure 
cultures except for purposes of seed-production. Vianne re- 
cords a yield of 5020 pounds hay an acre in France, and Sin- 
clair in England records that he obtained 2859 pounds hay 
cut in bloom, and 4900 pounds cut when the seed was ripe. 



PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 235 



The aftermath is only moderate. When sown alone, about 
30 pounds of ordinary quahty of seed is needed to the acre. 
The seed weighs 5 to 14 pounds a bushel, depending on 
quahty. The average 
purity is about 70 per 
cent and the viability 
63 per cent, but the 
best heavy seed is 
guaranteed by some 
seedsmen to germinate 
70, or even 80 per cent. 
One pound of seed con- 
tains 1,400,000 seeds 
according to Hunter, 
and 2,045,000 accord- 
ing to Stebler. Yellow 
oat-grass is sometimes 
used for lawns and, if 
kept closely cut, makes 
a good fme turf, but 
rather pale in color. 

CRESTED DOGSTAIL 

{Cynosurus cristatus) 




Fig. 25. — Crested dogstail {Cynosurus 
cristatus). a, b, fertile spikelets ; c, sterile 
spikelet. 



277. Crested dogs- 
tail is a highly appre- 
ciated grass in Europe 
as an admixture both 
for pastures and for meadows. It makes up a portion of 
the grass upon the best pastures of England, Holland and 
Switzerland. It is considered very nutritious, but the 
yield is only moderate. It is adapted primarily to cool, 
moist regions. 



236 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Crested dogstail is another example of a European grass 
that fails to thrive under American conditions, probably 
on account of summer heat. It has often been planted, 
but has become only very sparingly introduced and has 
nowhere shown any ability to increase and spread. 

It may prove of some value on the North Pacific Coast, 
but elsewhere it has shown no promise. 



CHAPTER XII 

SOUTHERN GRASSES 

The climate of the cotton region is not closely paralleled 
by that of any portion of Europe, and European grasses 
are therefore ill adapted to the conditions in the South. 
Most of the grasses useful in the Southern States have 
originated in countries having humid subtropical climates. 
Several of the most valuable have poor seeding habits, but 
are easily propagated vegetatively. 

BERMUDA-GRASS (Cyuodon dactylou) 

278. Botany. — Bermuda-grass is native to India and 
perhaps other parts of the Old World in tropical and sub- 
tropical localities. In India it is a most valued pasture 
grass and called dooh or hariali. In Virginia, where its 
growth is not sufficient to make it valuable, but only 
troublesome, it is generally known as wire-grass. It is 
also known locally as dogs'-tooth grass, Bahama-grass 
and Scotch-grass. 

Several varieties have been named by botanists, some 
as distinct species. The interrelation of the numerous 
forms is not, however, clear. 

279. Characteristics. — • Bermuda-grass is a long-Hved 
perennial with numerous branched leafy stems 4 to 6 
inches high, or under very favorable conditions 12 to 18 

237 



238 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



inches high. Where the aerial stems are supported by 
shrubs, they may reach a height of 3 feet. The leaves are 

flat and spreading, and 
differentiated from all 
similar grasses by the 
ligule which consists of 
a circle of white hairs. 
The flowers are in slen- 
der, spreading spikes 
one-half to one inch 
long, arranged in um- 
bels of 4 to 6. 

In the ordinary form 
of Bermuda-grass, 
numerous stout root- 
stocks as large as a lead 
pencil are produced, 
and by the growth of 
these a single plant 
may cover an area of 
several square yards. 
In very hard soil the 
rootstocks become 
stout runners 1 to 3 feet 
long, with much longer 
nodes and shorter 
leaves than the aerial 
stems. St. Lucie-grass and other forms have no under- 
ground rootstocks, but are much less hardy. 

280. Agricultural history. — The date of the introduc- 
tion of Bermuda-grass into the United States is not defi- 
nitely ascertained. Spillman gives a circumstantial ac- 
count of its introduction in 1812 at Greensboro, Georgia. 




Fig. 26. — Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dac 
tylon). a, spikelet ; b, floret. 



SOUTHERN GRASSES 239 

However, a definite and unmistakable account of Ber- 
muda-grass in the United States is given by Mease, 
" Geological Account of the United States," p. 227, pub- 
lished in 1807. 

281. Adaptations. — Bermuda-grass occurs in the 
United States generally from Pennsylvania west to cen- 
tral Kansas and south to the Gulf of Mexico ; also in 
Arizona, New Mexico and California. 

It extends somewhat farther northward, being found in 
Massachusetts and Washington, but its continued exist- 
ence in the Northern States is precarious. Much of it 
survived the cold of January, 1912, in the District of 
Columbia, when the temperature fell to — 18 ° F. The 
spread and growth of the grass about Washington, 
D.C., in the past ten years seem to be more vigorous than 
formerly, which may be due to gradual acchmatization. 
That Bermuda-grass does become more hardy seems to 
be demonstrated by investigations at the Oklahoma 
Experiment Station, where the local established strain 
was able to withstand — 18 ° F. while plots grown from 
Australian seed usually become winter-killed. 

In general, however, Bermuda-grass is best adapted 
in the United States to the same general area as cotton, 
and in this region is relatively as important as is Kentucky 
blue-grass in the North. It has also become abundant in 
California and Arizona, but in these states it is looked 
upon as a pest because of the difRculty it causes in 
alfalfa as a weed, whence it is sometimes called " devil- 
grass." 

Bermuda will grow in all types of soil, but makes its 
best growth on rich, moist bottom lands, but the soil must 
be well drained. It has marked ability to withstand close 
grazing or close clipping, and on this account is much used 



240 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

as a lawn grass. The slightest touch of frost, however, 
causes the leaves to turn brown. 

On account of its ability to grow on any type of soil, and 
its creeping character, Bermuda is an excellent soil binder 
on sandy soil, on eroding slopes of clay and in gullies. It 
is very abundant and useful for this purpose on the levees of 
the Mississippi River. 

Bermuda is not well adapted to shade and perhaps for 
this reason tends to disappear in fields where it is densely 
shaded by other crops. 

282. Variability. — Bermuda is a very variable grass, 
and many forms have been considered distinct species by 
botanists. Even the common form introduced into the 
United States is very diverse, and Moorhouse at the Okla- 
homa Experiment Station has secured numerous differing 
forms by selection. Some of the forms are very distinct 
and may become important. One of these recently in- 
troduced from Brazil produces superficial runners 15 feet 
or more long in a single season. 

In Florida occurs a form known as St. Lucie-grass, which 
differs from ordinary Bermuda in never having under- 
ground rootstocks. 

As Bermuda is easily propagated by cuttings, any 
selected form is easily maintained. 

283. Importance. — Bermuda-grass is the most impor- 
tant perennial grass in the Southern States, filling much the 
same position in respect to pasturage as Kentucky blue- 
grass in the North. Bermuda is also a hay grass and large 
quantities are thus harvested, especially in rich or alluvial 
soils. Its area of marked value is mainly south of latitude 
36° — that is, the north line of Tennessee — west to cen- 
tral Oklahoma. In this area it is even more aggressive 
than Kentucky blue-grass in the North, and, like the latter 



SOUTHERN GB ASSES 241 

grass, is seldom sown. The fact that both of these grasses 
volunteer so readily is probably the reason why so few 
definite experiments have been conducted with either. 

284. Culture. — Bermuda-grass is planted either by 
sowing the seed or by planting " roots." The seed is very 
fine and rather expensive ; therefore the seed bed should be 
well prepared and firm. The seed is best sown in spring, 
using about 5 pounds to the acre. To scatter it evenly, it 
is advisable to mix with meal or soil so as to make a larger 
bulk. After sowing the ground should be rolled or lightly 
harrowed. 

The more common method is to cut or tear the sod into 
small pieces and then drop them in furrows on plowed 
ground or merely press them in with the foot. The pieces 
should be scattered about 2 or 3 feet apart each way. 
Planting in this way is best done when the weather is 
hkely to be moist, at any time from spring till midsummer. 
Under such conditions the pieces of sod are very sure to 
grow. 

To save the loss of the land while the Bermuda is start- 
ing, it may be planted in the rows of any intertilled crop 
after the last cultivation. 

Bermuda-grass meadows or pastures tend to become sod 
bound and fall off in yield. When this is the case, the 
field should be disked or plowed and harrowed, after which 
the growth will be much more vigorous. 

Where conditions are not such that Bermuda will grow 
in spite of bad treatment, care is necessary to insure a good 
stand. At the Oklahoma Experiment Station pieces of 
sod were planted in well-prepared land in 4 ways : 1. By 
placing in furrows three feet apart and covering each root ; 
2. B}^ scattering pieces of sod evenly and then working 
them into the soil with a smoothing harrow; 3. Seeding 



242 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

followed by light harrowing; 4. Treated the same as in 
2, and then planted to kafir corn which was cultivated in 
the usual way. A good stand was secured by the first 
method, a partial stand by the second, but the other two 
were failures. 

285. Yields of hay. — But few reliable yields of Ber- 
muda-grass hay have been recorded, but statements have 
been published to the effect that 3 to 4 tons an acre are 
secured at times. Probably the average yield does not 
exceed 1 ton an acre. 

At the Oklahoma Experiment Station a field of 21 acres 
planted in June, 1905, yielded 2584 pounds hay an acre 
at the end of September, and in 1906 three cuttings gave a 
yield of 10,160 pounds an acre. Another plot yielded 
during three years to the acre respectively, 5850, 1635 and 
1667 pounds of hay. 

Newman states that a field on bottom land in Georgia 
yielded in three cuttings 13,000 pounds of cured hay to 
the acre. 

286. Rootstocks. — According to Duggar, the stout 
rootstocks when plowed up are readily eaten by hogs. 
In the tropics where Bermuda-grass is sold green in bundles 
for horse feed, the rootstocks are often pulled up when the 
top growth is scanty. The same use of the rootstocks is 
made in Naples, Italy, where they are fed to cab horses. 

287. Pasture value. — Bermuda alone or in mixtures 
makes excellent pasturage, but it is best when closely 
grazed. The stems become rather tough and wiry with 
age, and where there are not enough animals to keep it 
closely grazed they feed only in spots. 

Bermuda is so aggressive that few other plants will 
grow with it during summer. Lespedeza will hold its own 
in spots and the combination of the two is excellent. 



SOUTHERN GRASSES 243 

Bermuda does not grow in winter, but if bur clover be 
sown it will make good winter pasturage and reseed itself 
from year to j^ear. Hairy vetch is also useful for the same 
reason, but does not reseed itself so well. Another excel- 
lent plan is to seed Bermuda pastures in the fall to Italian 
rye-grass, which grows rapidly and furnishes pasturage 
until the following summer. This grass is also often sown 
in Bermuda lawns to make a green lawn in the winter. 
White clover is also an excellent plant to grow with Ber- 
muda for pasturage. 

Good Bermuda pastures will carry one cow to the acre 
during the summer and the best Bermuda and lespedeza 
mixed pastures will support two cattle to the acre during 
the summer. 

288. Feeding value. — The only feeding experiments 
reported are by the Mississippi Experiment Station. In 
one experiment Bermuda was compared with timothy as a 
hay feed for work mules, and the conclusion reached that 
they were of equal value. 

In experiments with dairy cows during three years the 
results indicate that Bermuda hay has practically the same 
value as timothy hay for the production of milk and butter. 

289. Seed-production. — Commercial seed of Bermuda- 
grass has heretofore been obtained wholly from Australia, 
but recently it has been gathered in Arizona and southern 
California. The culms are often only four or five inches 
high, but the seed is held firmly long after it becomes ripe. 
No data concerning the yields of seed seem to have been 
recorded. 

In humid regions Bermuda sets seed sparingly or only 
in periods of unusually dry weather. Seed has been found 
in Louisiana, Florida and North Carolina, while at Wash- 
ington, D.C., it is quite freely formed. 



244 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

The viability of Australian seed ranges from 56 to 84 

per cent. According to Hunt, one pound contains 1,800,000 

seeds. 

JOHNSON-GRASS (Andropogon halepensis) 

290. Botany. — Johnson-grass is native to South Asia 
and about the borders of the Mediterranean in x\frica and 
southernmost Europe. The specific name comes from the 
city Aleppo, whence it first became known to European 
botanists. 

Two varieties occur in Europe ; namely, the ordinary 
form with awned spikelets, and the awnless variety suh- 
midicus. Both of these also occur in the United States. 
In India there is another variety distinguished by having 
a loose drooping panicle. 

Andropogon halepensis is distinguished from all forms of 
Andropogon sorghum by possessing underground rootstocks 
and thus being truly perennial. 

291. Agricultural history. — Johnson-grass was intro- 
duced into South Carolina from Turkey about 1830. It 
derives its common name from Col. William Johnson, who 
grew it extensively near Selma, Alabama, beginning about 
1840. In South Carolina it is still known as Means grass. 
Governor Means of that state had sent a planter to Turkey 
to instruct the Turks in cotton culture, and this planter on his 
return brought back many seeds, including Johnson-grass. 

Numerous other local names have been attached to 
Johnson-grass, among them Aleppo-grass, false guinea- 
grass, evergreen millet, racehorse-grass, etc. 

In its wide spread since 1840, Johnson-grass has usually 
been considered more as a weed than a cultivated plant, 
but as late as 1884 and 1885 it was distributed by the 
California Experiment Station as a desirable new forage 
plant. 



SOUTHERN GRASSES 245 

292. Adaptation and utilization. — Johnson-grass is 
adapted to the whole region in which cotton culture is 
carried on, and also New Mexico, Arizona and California. 
It grows well during the summer north of latitude 37°, 
but in cold winters is usually destroyed. In favorable 
years it lives over winter in Iowa and the District of 
Columbia. It grows in all types of soil, but prefers rich 
land and an abundant supply of moisture. 

This plant can scarcely be called a cultivated grass, as 
when once planted it is difficult to eradicate, and therefore 
it is rarely sown intentionally. Indeed in regions where it 
does not occur, great care is taken to keep it out. Where, 
however, it is established, it is abundantly utilized both 
for hay and for pasture. On good soil two crops and some- 
times three may be cut in one season. Johnson-grass 
quickly becomes '' sod bound," and unless plowed up 
every year, or at least every two years, the yield becomes 
very small. Just why the grass becomes " sod bound " is 
not clear, but perhaps it is connected with the great devel- 
opment of rootstocks. 

Where Johnson-grass is very abundant, a common plan 
is to plow in fall and plant to oats or oats and vetch. 
After this crop is removed, two good crops of Johnson-grass 
hay are usually obtained the same season. 

North of the south line of Virginia and Kentucky there 
is no good reason why Johnson-grass should not be utilized 
as an annual crop. Sown in the spring, it produces a 
large crop of hay and nearly always is killed in the winter. 
At Arlington Farm, Virginia, it has several times been 
planted in mixtures with cowpeas, for which purpose it 
is well adapted. It is rare that any of the grass survives 
the winter. 

Johnson-grass probably produces more of the hay grown 



246 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

in the South than any other perennial grass, unless it be 
Bermuda-grass. In sections where Johnson-grass has 
become very abundant, more attention is now being given 
to its profitable utilization rather than to undertake the 
expense of eradicating it. 

On rich black soils three cuttings are sometimes secured 
in one season, the total yield reaching a maximum of 
about 6 tons. Probably about 1^ tons is an average cut- 
ting, and 2 the usual number saved. At the Mississippi 
Experiment Station the yield to the acre on unfertilized 
plots was 3.75 and 4.83 tons, an average of 4.29 tons in 
two cuttings. The use of 187 pounds cottonseed meal an 
acre increased the yield of hay to 5.54 tons, and 460 pounds 
to 5.82 tons ; 94 pounds of nitrate soda an acre increased 
the yield to 5.54 tons, and 189 pounds to 5.92 tons. Mixed 
with cowpeas two cuttings were obtained, aggregating 3.85 
tons to the acre. At the North Carolina Experiment Sta- 
tion a thin stand yielded 5139 pounds of hay to the acre. 

The rootstocks of Johnson-grass are also readily eaten 
by farm animals, especially hogs. In Texas fields are 
sometimes plowed up in winter to furnish feed in this 
manner. 

293. Poisonous qualities. — Under some conditions 
Johnson-grass may cause the death of cattle in the same 
manner as do the sorghums ; namely, by the formation of 
hydrocyanic acid. Cases of this kind were reported from 
Miles City, Montana, in 1885, and from California in 1905. 
It has also been reported by Duthie that Johnson-grass in 
India often causes the death of cattle, especially in dry 
seasons when the grass is stunted. No case of this kind 
has ever been reported from the Southern States where 
Johnson-grass is most abundant. 

294. Seed. — Seed of Johnson-grass is mainly grown in 



SOUTHERN GRASSES 247 

Texas, but to some extent in Mississippi, Louisiana and 
Alabama. The demand for it is not large. The grass is 
commonly cut with a binder, cured in the shock and 
thrashed with a grain separator. The yields are said to be 
8 or 10 bushels per acre, but a crop of hay can be harvested 
after the seed crop. The commercial seed is often low in 
viability, seldom testing as high as 70 per cent. 

JAPANESE SUGAR-CANE (Sacchavum officinarum) 

295. History and characteristics. — The Japanese or 
Zwinga sugar-cane was introduced in the United States 
Department of Agriculture, in 1878, from Japan. At first 
it was used mainly for sirup, but in recent years it has 
been employed largely as forage. 

Japanese sugar-cane differs from the varieties grown 
for sugar in having more numerous, more slender stems ; 
firmly attached leaf sheaths which make it difficult to 
strip the canes ; narrower, smoother leaves than the varie- 
ties grown primarily for sugar ; and especially in its long 
period of productivity, new canes growing from the old 
roots for 12 years or more, apparently without any tend- 
ency for the yield to lessen on account of age of the plants. 
According to Scott, a new system of roots is developed 
each season. 

296. Adaptations. — Japanese sugar-cane in the United 
States is adapted only to the region south of latitude 33°, 
except in California, where it has succeeded fairly well in 
the Sacramento Valley. A temperature of about 15° 
F. is about the minimum the roots will withstand. It is 
apparently more resistant to cold than any other variety. 

Sugar-cane will grow in smy type of soil if fairly well 
drained, but large yields are secured only on fertile 
soils. 



248 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

297. Planting. — Japanese sugar-cane, like other varie- 
ties, has never been known to bloom in the United States. 
It is propagated by laying the mature canes in shallow 
furrows 6 to 8 inches deep and then covering. To insure a 
full stand it is best to lay two canes side by side for the 
whole length of the furrow, breaking joints in laying, as 
the basal nodes are most sure to sprout. The canes may 
be cut into pieces of 3 or 4 joints, and this is necessary if 
the canes are crooked. In the tropics the tops of the canes 
are often used for immediate planting. 

The rows are usually planted about 8 feet apart, as the 
individual plants stool greatly with age, and narrower 
rows do not leave room to cultivate. 

The canes are sometimes planted in November, which 
is satisfactory in central and south Florida, but farther 
north spring planting is advisable, as otherwise there is 
danger of winter-killing. 

298. Culture. — Japanese cane is cultivated much like 
corn. Deep cultivation is desirable in early spring as 
soon as growth begins. Later cultivations should be 
shallower. 

The use of fertilizers increases the yield greatly, and the 
yield promptly falls off if fertilizers are not used, at least 
on ordinary Florida soils. The experiments thus far 
reported do not show clearly what fertilizers are best to 
use. 

299. Utilization. — Japanese cane may be utilized as 
dry fodder, silage or pasture. The crop should be allowed 
to become as mature as possible without danger of frost 
injury. If cut early, the plants are much weakened or 
even killed. 

The experience of the Florida Experiment Station is 
that the silage keeps well and is relished by all live-stock. 



SOUTHERN GRASSES 249 

Under Florida conditions Japanese cane silage is about one- 
third cheaper than corn or sorghum silage on account of 
the larger yields. 

The dried fodder also makes excellent feed, but on 
account of the hard stems is best shredded. When stored 
in a barn it keeps well for six months or more, but there 
is considerable loss if left in the field in shocks. 

The cheapest way to utilize the crop is by pasturing 
to cattle and hogs, which may be done from November till 
March. The animals eat the leaves and tops first, but 
finally leave nothing but the hardest stubble. 

At the Louisiana Experiment Station the experience has 
been less favorable, the hard canes making the mouths of 
cattle sore, and even when preserved as silage being but 
little better. 

300. Yields. — There are no definite figures as to the 
yield of Japanese sugar-cane, but in the region to which it 
is adapted, it far outyields any similar plant. Good yields 
probably amount to about 30 tons green matter an acre, 
and maximum yields to double this or even more. 

301. Seed cane. — Canes for propagation should be 
fully mature if possible, but in any event should be har- 
vested before frost. To preserve them for spring planting, 
they must be protected from frost in a well-drained place. 
The usual method is to dig a trench where the ground is 
well drained and to cover the stripped and topped canes 
with enough soil or trash to protect them from freezing. 
It is considered safer to bank the canes in several small 
trenches rather than in one large one. Sometimes the 
canes are simply piled on the surface and then covered 
with soil, manure or straw. 

To plant an acre in rows 8 feet wide requires about 
3000 whole canes. 



250 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



OTHER SOUTHERN GRASSES 

302. Carpet-grass (Axonopus compressus) . — Carpet- 
grass or Louisiana-grass, called by the Creoles in Ijouisiana 
'' petit gazon," is now widespread in the tropics and sub- 
tropics of both hemispheres, but it is probably native to 
America. It was first described from Jamaica in 1788, 
next from Porto Rico in 1804. It may be native to 
Florida. 

Carpet-grass is a perennial with creeping rootstocks and 
numerous short, rather broad, flat leaves. The slender 
culms rarely reach a height of two feet. This grass has 
been known in the Southern States for many years and is 
now widespread from about latitude 32° to the Gulf 
of Mexico and west to central Texas. It thrives best in 
sandy land, especially where moist, and in such situations 
makes a fine dense sward. 

On sandy lands in Florida and near the Gulf Coast car- 
pet-grass is very aggressive, and wherever the land is 
closely pastured, it is the principal grass. It stands 
trampling and heavy pasturing without injury and seems 
to thrive best under such conditions. 

Carpet-grass can scarcely be considered a cultivated 
grass, and commercial seed is seldom obtainable. This 
grass now occurs in nearly all the area to which it is 
adapted so that it is rarely necessary to plant it especially. 
Where this is desirable, however, carpet-grass may be 
planted by scattering small pieces of sod, as in the case of 
Bermuda-grass. Or better, the grass may be permitted 
to seed, mowed when mature and the straw with the 
attached seed scattered over the field where it is desired. 

Carpet-grass requires both abundant heat and moisture 
for its best development, and under such conditions may 



SOUTH EBN GRASSES 251 

be pastured from May until November. During the cool 
weather of winter it makes practically no growth. 

PASPALUM 

303. Paspalum {Paspaluni dilatatum) is a native of 
Argentina and perhaps also of the Gulf States. At any 
rate it occurs apparently native from North Carolina to 
Florida and west to Texas. The probabilities are, how- 
ever, that it was introduced into the Southern States where 
it has been known at least 50 years. It is readily dis- 
tinguished from related native species by having the 
glumes and sterile lemma ciliate with long hairs. 

This grass is known also under the names of large water- 
grass, golden crown-grass and hairy-flowered paspalum. 
It is a smooth perennial, with a deep, strong root system, 
and grows in clumps or bunches 2 to 4 feet high. The 
leaves are numerous near the ground, but few on the 
stems. The stems are weak and spreading, seldom erect 
unless supported by other grasses. Its habit makes it 
much better adapted to pastures than for meadows, but 
where abundant it is cut for hay. 

Paspalum can scarcely be called a cultivated grass in 
the United States, as it is seldom sown, but is welcomed 
in pastures where it appears spontaneously. Some 
farmers collect seed and scatter in pastures to induce its 
spread. The best seeds are produced late in the season. 
As a pasture grass it is desirable from the abundance of 
leaves it produces, and the fact that it remains green and 
grows in all but the very coldest part of the year. It is 
quite tussocky in habit, however, and so is best in mix- 
tures. 

In New South Wales, paspalum has proven valuable as 
a hay and pasture grass and has there been greatly praised 



252 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



by agriculturists. It is said to remain green when all 
other grasses are dried up, and several successive cuttings, 
aggregating 13 tons (green feed) an acre, were obtained 

at the Wollongar 
Experiment Station 
the season following 
the seeding. In the 
Tweed district pas- 
palum pasture is said 
to support one dairy 
cow to the acre the 
year round. 

In the United States 
paspalum is adapted 
to practically the same 
area as the cotton 
plant, excepting that 
it does not spread 
west of the humid 
eastern portion of 
Texas. While it oc- 
curs on all types of 
soil it is most abun- 
dant on rich black soils 
and bottom lands. 

Paspalum has given 
fair results under irri- 
gation in the San 
Joaquin Valley, California, but does not yield heavily 
enough to warrant cultivation. 

It produces seed freely, but it ripens unevenly and 
shatters easily. In the Southern States the flowers are 
nearly always affected by a black fungus and apparently 




Fig. 27. — Paspalum dilatatum . a, show- 
ing arrangement of spikelets ; b, a single 
spikelet ; c and d, floret. 



SOUTHERN GRASSES 253 

only a small percentage of the seed is good. Commercial 
seed comes wholl}^ from Australia, but it rarely germinates 
over 50 per cent and is high priced. 

PARA-GRASS 

304. Para-grass (Panicum barbinode). — Para-grass is 
probably native to South America and first became known 
to botanists from Brazil. It is a coarse growing species, 
differing from most other grasses by producing stout 
runners as thick as a lead pencil which reach a length of 
15 to 40 feet. These runners take root at the nodes and 
thus give rise to independent plants. Where there is 
shrubbery to support them they may reach a height of 
15 feet. The leaves are rather short, rarely longer than 
one foot and about one-half inch wide. The sheaths are 
quite pubescent as are the nodes also. When growing 
thickly para-grass will under favorable conditions make a 
dense mass of herbage 3 or 4 feet high. 

Para-grass is a tropical species and adapted to wet or 
moist land. In Brazil, Ceylon and elsewhere it is much 
grown and fed green to animals. It is sometimes difficult 
to eradicate in the tropics and is especially troublesome in 
sugar-cane fields. In the United States it is adapted only 
to Florida and the Gulf Coast to southern Texas. In 
Arizona and California it has been tried under irrigation, 
but has not done very well, apparently requiring a humid 
climate. Para-grass has survived the winter at Charleston, 
S.C., and can probably be grown wherever the winter 
temperature does not fall below 18° F. It often grows 
along stream banks where it is covered with water for a 
month or more at a time, conditions which do not harm it 
in the least. On the margins of ponds it is frequently seen 
growing in shallow water, 



254 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

On account of its coarseness and rapid growth, para- 
grass makes an enormous yield. In Florida it is often cut 
three and four times during a season, and yields as high 
as 4 tons may be harvested in a single cutting. There is 
no particular time to cut para-grass, but it is usually done 
when the grass is 2 to 3 feet high. The hay is coarse but 
readily eaten by both horses and cattle. 

To secure the best yields, it is desirable to plow the field 
each spring, which stimulates the growth of the grass. 
Some planters sow the plowed land to cowpeas and then 
get a mixed crop of cowpeas and grass at the first 
cutting. 

Para-grass is coming into larger use in southern Texas 
and some extensive fields are now grown under irrigation. 
Where the climate is warm and moist no other grass 
produces equally large yields on wet lands. 

This grass is easily propagated by cuttings of the long 
prostrate runners. These are cut into lengths of 2 or 3 
joints, and then merely pushed into the ground at intervals 
of 5 to 10 feet or even more. This may be done on spe- 
cially prepared land or in between the rows of cultivated 
crops. During the first season para-grass usually pro- 
duces only prostrate runners unless the cuttings are 
planted thickly. After the ground has become well cov- 
ered with the runners, upright branches are produced, 
and when growing thickly all the shoots become ascending. 

The seed of para-grass is not very satisfactory, and, as 
it shatters very readily, is seldom gathered. It is pro- 
duced most abundantly during dry weather when the 
growth becomes reduced. 

305. Guinea-grass (Panicum maximum). — Guinea- 
grass is native to Africa and has been considered native in 
Brazil, but first became known to botanists from the West 



SOUTHERN GRASSES 255 

Indies. It was known in Jamaica before 1756 as guinea- 
grass ; in Guadeloupe before 1786 ; in Dominica l)efore 
1791, and in Cuba in 1804. According to Trimen it was 
introduced into Jamaica in 1774 from west tropical Africa 
by John Ellis as food for some birds he had imported. 
From Jamaica it was introduced into India in 1808. It is 
now quite generally grown in the tropics and cut green as 
feed for horses and cattle. In Cuba large areas are now 
covered with a spontaneous growth of the grass. It was 
introduced into the United States as early as 1813 when it 
was grown at Natchez, Mississippi. It is well adapted 
only to Florida and a narrow strip along the Gulf Coast to 
southern Texas. In Arizona and California it does fairly 
well under irrigation, but has not come into agricultural 
use in these states. 

Guinea-grass is a long-lived perennial, with short creep- 
ing rootstocks, single plants often making tufts 4 feet 
in diameter. The culms are about as large as a lead pencil 
and in the ordinary form strictly erect, reaching a height 
of 6 to 10 feet. The leaves are 1 to 3 feet long, flat and 
about one-fourth to one and one-half inches wide. The 
panicles are erect, pyramidal, loose and open, a foot 
or more long. The spikelets shed promptly as they 
mature. 

Guinea-grass from different sources shows considerable 
variation. One form from South Africa is smaller, 4 to 6 
feet tall, and the culms are decumbent at the base, and 
rooting at the nodes. Another, too late even to bloom at 
the Florida Experiment Station, has leaves as broad as 
those of corn. 

In the tropics guinea-grass is used wholly for soiling, 
and on uplands no other grass will yield as well. In 
Florida and along the Gulf Coast, it may be cut from 4 to 6 



256 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

times, if cut when it is two feet high or less. It should not 
be allowed to bloom, as the stems are rather hard and 
woody. 

Guinea-grass is not well adapted for hay on account of 
its bunch habit, but this is much less pronounced when it is 
grown thickly. The seeds shatter promptly as they 
mature, but can be secured by cutting off the panicles 
before they are fully mature and curing in the shade. 

This grass may be propagated by root divisions, or 
seedlings may be grown and then transplanted. The best 
results are secured when the grass is planted in rows 5 or 6 
feet wide and 3 feet apart in the row, so that it can be 
cultivated. Thus planted it will yield an enormous 
amount of green matter, probably more than any other 
similar grass. Guinea-grass is killed when the tempera- 
ture reaches about 18° F. 

306. Rescue-grass {Bromus unioloides), also known as 
Schrader's brome-grass, Arctic-grass, Australian brome 
and Australian oats, is native to Argentina, but was early 
introduced in the Southern States, where it now appears 
spontaneously in many places. The first definite record 
of its introduction is 1853, in which year it was advertised 
and highly praised by B. V. Iverson of Columbus, Georgia, 
who apparently first used the name rescue-grass. 

Rescue-grass is a short-lived perennial, but under cul- 
tivation behaves practically as an annual. It commonly 
grows to a height of 2J or 4 feet, the culms terminated by a 
large, open, somewhat drooping panicle. 

It is naturally adapted to humid regions of mild winters, 
springing up in the fall, growing through the winter and 
maturing in early summer. It does not make much 
growth on poor land, but on rich soils is probably the best 
grass for temporary winter pastures in the South. On such 



SOUTHERN GRASSES 



257 



soils it also grows large enough to cut for hay, and under 
favorable conditions two cuttings may be obtained. 

In the North rescue-grass survives the winter at Arling- 
ton Farm, Virginia, 
and in the grass gar- 
den survives 4 or 5 
years, but it cannot 
compete with the bet- 
ter northern grasses 
in yield. 

In Australia rescue- 
grass has become quite 
important and practi- 
cally all of the com- 
mercial seed is grown 
there. The seeding 
habits are excellent 
and the seed moder- 
ate in price. 

Rescue-grass is 
probably deserving of 
more attention in the 
South than it has re- 
ceived, especially for 
winter pasturage on 
good land. It should 
be sown in early fall, 
and may often be 
pastured by December but usually not till February. 
The seeding rate generally recommended is 30 to 40 
pounds per acre. It is always a desirable constituent of 
mixed pastures with such winter-growing plants as bur 
clover, vetches, orchard-grass and Italian rye-grass. 




Fig. 28. 
oloides) . 



— Rescue-grass {Bromus uni- 
a, glumes ; b, lemma ; c, palea. 



258 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

307. Crab-grass (Digitaria sanguinalis) is a native of 
the Old World, early introduced into the United States as 
a weed. The older agricultural writers mostly speak of it 
as " crop-grass/' of which the more modern term seems to 
be a corruption. It is an annual weedy grass that appears 
with the advent of hot weather and is promptly killed by 
the first frost in fall. It makes an abundant growth in 
cultivated ground from which winter crops have been 
harvested, or even after early summer crops, such as oats 
and potatoes. Perhaps more crab-grass is cut for hay in 
the South than any other one grass. The hay is consid- 
ered fair in quality if cut about the time the first heads 
mature. 

Crab-grass is always a spontaneous crop and is never 
sown, nor is the seed handled commercially. In lawns it 
becomes a destructive weed, as it makes dense mats which 
smother out other grasses. 

308. Natal-grass {Tricholcena rosea) is an annual, 
native of Natal, South Africa, now grown commonly in 
India, Australia, the Hawaiian Islands and other warm 
regions. Sometimes it is called Australian redtop or 
Hawaiian redtop, but it has no relation to true redtop. 
It is a summer annual and in America is adapted only to 
Florida and the Gulf Coast region. The dark rose-colored, 
loose panicles are very attractive. It is similar to com- 
mon crab-grass in its habit of growth, but is larger, more 
leafy and bears moderate frosts with less injury. The 
best growth is made on rather sandy soils, and in Florida 
after the ground is once seeded it makes an abundant 
volunteer growth after Irish potatoes, melons, oats and 
other early crops have been gathered. It was introduced 
into Florida about twenty years ago and is now very abun- 
dant in scattered areas through that state. For fall 



SOUTHERN GRASSES 259 

and winter grazing it is excellent and the hay is of good 
quality, especially when mixed with cowpeas. It begins 
its growth so earl}^ in the season that it is usually killed 
by any summer cultivation which may be given the field, 
so that it is rarely seen in cotton or corn fields. The 
glumes are very hairy and light, so the seed must be gath- 
ered by stripping. Seed may be sown broadcast at any 
time from November to April and needs no special atten- 
tion. 

Natal-grass is valuable wherever it will continue to 
volunteer from year to j^ar, but its seed habits and small 
yield do not commend it for growing in rotations. Some 
commercial seed is grown in Australia. 

Seeds from different sources show that the plant is quite 
variable, and some forms are decidedly more valuable 
than others. A related species, T. teneriffce, is perennial 
and may prove valuable for permanent pastures in Florida. 



CHAPTER XIII 

SORGHUMS 

SORGHUM {Andropogon sorghum) 

The numerous varieties of sorghum are cultivated in the 
Old World for three distinct purposes ; namely, grain, sirup 
and brooms, and but incidentally for forage. In the 
United States the utilization of the crop for forage far 
exceeds its other uses at present, though the culture of 
broom-corn is important, and the harvesting of the crop 
as grain is increasing. Sorghum is potentially of enormous 
importance in America because of its adaptation to regions 
too dry for Indian corn. 

309. Botany. — The botanical origin of the cultivated 
sorghums is a complex problem. Hackel on the basis of 
extensive studies reached the conclusion that all the 
cultivated forms as well as the different forms of Johnson- 
grass represent but one botanical species. However, 
the wild forms easily separate into two groups ; namely, 
the perennials w4th rootstocks hke Johnson-grass and its 
3 or 4 varieties ; and the annuals which lack rootstocks, 
hke Sudan-grass, Tunis-grass and others. As the latter 
cross spontaneously and abundantly with the cultivated 
sorghums while the former can be crossed only with diffi- 
culty, it seems more logical to admit two species, Johnson- 
grass and its varieties {Andropogon halepensis) and the 
annual sorghums (Andropogon sorghum) including Sudan- 
grass. 

260 



SOBGHUMS 261 

The wild annuals so far as known are confined to Africa, 
but one occurs perhaps introduced in Tahiti and Samoa. 
From this fact the cultivated sorghums probably originated 
in Africa, a conclusion also supported by the fact that the 
diversity of the African varieties both wild and cultivated 
is far greater than that of all other regions. Tunis-grass 
may be considered very near the wild original form and 
Sudan-grass a variety somewhat improved by cultivation. 
There are several other wild forms in different parts of 
Africa concerning which but little is known. 

310. Agricultural history. — The culture of the sor- 
ghums is doubtless very ancient, far antedating history. 
The first definite records are illustrations on ancient 
Egyptian ruins dating from about 2200 B.C. of what is, 
with scarcely a doubt, some variety of sorghum. Bret- 
scheider finds evidence in Chinese writings that sorghums 
were cultivated in China as early as the third century of 
the Christian Era. Old Sanskrit writings, dating back 
1900 years, mention what is quite surely a grain sorghum 
grown in India at that time. In ancient Greek writings 
there are no clear references to sorghum, but the plant was 
known to Pliny, who states that it was introduced into 
Italy from India about 60 a.d. 

More potent than the brief records of ancient history is 
the mute testimony that the plant itself affords by its 
early wide distribution and the astonishing diversity of its 
cultivated forms. Its culture probably extended through- 
out Africa in prehistoric times and early spread to the 
southern half of Asia as far northeast as Manchuria. In 
the latter country an entirely distinct group of forms has 
been developed, the kowliangs ; and the East Indian forms 
also are very different from those of Africa. 

In America, the first sorghum to be introduced was 



262 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

doubtless the Guinea corn, brought from Africa to the 
West Indies before 1707, at which date it was much cul- 
tivated in Jamaica. In the United States broom-corn 
sorghums were grown in colonial times, but the first definite 
record of a sweet sorghum was that introduced in 1853 
from France, the variety then called Chinese sorghum and 
much like that now called Amber. In 1857 it was widely 
distributed by the United States Patent Office. 

Since 1857 numerous varieties have been introduced 
into the United States, mainly by the Department of 
Agriculture, from all parts of the world where the crop is 
grown, as with the agricultural development of the semi- 
arid region the sorghums have become increasingly impor- 
tant. 

311. Adaptations. — Sorghums are adapted to regions 
having a warm summer climate. The earliest known 
varieties will mature with three months of warm weather, 
but some of the tropical African varieties barely come into 
bloom in Florida in 7 months. In regions of long, cool 
summers like northern Europe, sorghums are of but little 
value. 

No degree of summer heat seems too intense for the 
sorghums, but they are injured both in spring and in fall 
by light frosts. 

Sorghum has no marked preference for soil except that 
it be well drained. On account of its deep roots a permea- 
ble subsoil is desirable. 

In general the chmatic and soil adaptations of sorghums 
are nearly identical with those of corn. Sorghum, how- 
ever, suffers less than corn from intense heat, lack of 
humidity or insufficient soil moisture, often remaining 
fresh and green when corn is completely destroyed, or 
remaining semi-dormant during short periods of extreme 



SORGHUMS 263 

drought and again growing with the advent of favorable 
weather. On these accounts it is especially well adapted 
to agriculture in semi-arid regions. 

312. Root system. — In Ten Eyck's studies at the Kan- 
sas Experiment Station, the roots of kafir and of Folger 
sorgo were found to extend to a depth of 3| feet, but at 
that depth were less abundant than those of corn. Both 
varieties, especially the kafir corn, produced an enormous 
amount of roots in the upper 18 inches. The sorghums 
therefore have a root system especially well adapted to use 
shallow moisture promptly. 

In Russian investigations the roots of two varieties 
of sorghum penetrated respectively 106 and 110 centi- 
meters, while corn roots went to a depth of 113 centi- 
meters and spread laterally to a greater extent than the 
sorghum. 

The drought resistance of sorghums would therefore 
seem not to be especially associated with the development 
of the root system. 

313. Agricultural groups. — No other cultivated crop 
exhibits as great a diversity as does sorghum. Varieties 
have been developed for three distinct purposes ; namely, 
grain, sugar and broom-straw. All three of the groups 
also produce forage as a by-product. A satisfactory 
classification of the ver}^ numerous forms of tropical Africa 
is not at present possible, but very many of them have 
been named by botanists. So far as the forms cultivated 
in America are concerned, the classification into groups as 
proposed by Ball is here adopted, adding another group, 
however, to include Sudan-grass and Tunis-grass. 

* Stems slender, rarely exceeding 6 mm. in diameter ; leaves 
relatively narrow, 12 to 30 mm. broad ; panicles loose ; spikelets 



264 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

lanceolate, 2 to 3 mm. broad, readily shattering (Tunis-grass) 
or persisting (Sudan-grass). I Grass sorghums. 

** Stems stout, usually 18 to 30 mm. in diameter ; leaves 
broader, 45 to 75 mm. broad ; panicles various. 

I. Pith juicy. 

A. Juice abundant and very sweet. 

1. Internodes elongated ; sheaths scarcely overlap- 
ping ; leaves 12-15 (except in Amber varieties) ; 
spikelets elliptic-oval to obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. 
wide ; grains reddish brown. II Sorgo. 

B. Juice scanty, slightly sweet to subacid. 

1. Internodes short ; sheaths strongly overlapping ; 

leaves 12-15 ; peduncles erect ; panicles cylin- 
drical ; spikelets obovate, 3-4 mm. wide ; lem- 
mas awnless. Ill Kafir. 

2. Internodes medium ; sheaths scarcely overlapping ; 

leaves 8-11 ; peduncles mostly inclined, often 
recurved ; panicles ovate ; spikelets broadly 
ovate, 4.5-6 mm. wide ; lemmas awned. 

VIII Milo. 

II. Pith dry. 

A. Panicle lax, 2.5-7 dm. long; peduncles erect; spike- 
lets elliptic-oval or obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide ; 
lemmas awned. 

1. Panicle 4-7 dm. long; rhachis less than one-fifth 

as long as the panicle. 
a. Panicle umbelliform, the branches greatly 
elongated, the tips drooping; grains reddish, 
included. IV Broom-corn. 

2. Panicle 2.5-4 dm. long; rhachis more than two- 

thirds as long as the panicle. 
a. Panicle conical, the branches strongly drooping ; 
glumes at maturity spreading and involute ; 
grains white or somewhat buff. V Shallu. 



SORGHUMS 265 

6. Panicle oval or obovate, the branches spread- 
ing ; glumes at maturity appressed, not invo- 
lute ; grains white, brown or reddish. 

VI Kowliang. 

B. Panicle compact, 1-2.5 dm. long ; peduncles erect or 
recurved ; rhachis more than two-thirds as long as the 
panicle. 

1. Spikelets elliptic-oval or obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. 

wide; lemmas awned. VI Kowliang. 

2. Spikelets broadly obovate, 4.5-6 mm. wide. 

a. Glumes gray or greenish, not wrinkled ; densely 

pubescent ; lemmas awned or awnless ; grains 
strongly flattened. VII Durra. 

b. Glumes deep brown or black, transversely 

wrinkled ; thinly pubescent ; lemmas awned ; 
grains slightly flattened. VIII Milo. 

Of the above eight groups, Durra, Milo, Shallu, Kowh- 
ang and Kafir were primarily developed as grain crops, 
though the last also contains sugar ; Sorgo was developed 
for its sugar ; Broom-corn for its stiff fascicled straws ; 
and the grass sorghums are useful primarily for fodder. 
The w^aste herbage of each group is, however, used as fodder 
wherever cultivated. In America probably three-fourths 
of the total herbage produced by all the sorghums is con- 
sumed as coarse forage. Indeed, the only portions not 
thus harvested are the brooms of broom-corn ; the stalks 
from which sirup is extracted ; and the increasing propor- 
tion of milo, kafir and durra which is headed for grain, at 
the present time not over one-half the acreage. 

Sorghums are sometimes classified into saccharine and 
non-saccharine, depending on whether they contain sugar 
in the stalks. The discussion of forage sorghums is here 
limited to the varieties and methods used where the whole 
plant is usually harvested and thus utihzed. 



266 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

314. Importance. — The relative importance of the 
sorghum as forage in America is difficult to estimate, 
mainly on account of the four purposes — grain, forage, 
sirup and brooms — for which the crop is grown. The 
importance of the crop for much of the semi-arid region, 
especially the unirrigated lands between longitude 98° W. 
and the Rocky Mountains, is so great that over much of 
the region it forms the basis of possible agriculture. In 
more humid areas it comes into competition with corn. 
Other competitive crops like teosinte and penicillaria have 
practically been driven from American agriculture by 
sorghum, but in Florida and the Gulf Coast region Japan- 
ese sugar-cane will give larger forage returns than sorghum, 
but the latter is grown on account of its usefulness in 
rotations. 

The statistics of sorghums, at least the sweet sorghums, 
are not very satisfactory. According to the Thirteenth 
United States Census the total acreage of sorghum was as 
follows : — 

Sorghum for sirup 444,089 acres 

Broom-corn 326,102 acres 

Kafir and milo 1,635,153 acres 

2,405,344 acres 

Some of the sorghum is also reported under the heading 
" Coarse forage," but it is impossible to estimate how 
much. 

According to the Kansas State Board of Agriculture, 
there was grown in that state in 1910 acreage as follows : 
sorgo, 512,621; milo, 100,700; kafir, 636,201. Of the 
sorgo the product of only 12,879 acres was pressed for 
sirup. 

315. Culture. — Sorghum is grown for forage either in 



SORGHUMS 267 

rows sufficiently wide to cultivate with horses, or less com- 
monly, broadcasted or drilled thickly for hay. Sometimes 
it is planted in a mixture with cowpeas, soybeans or other 
legumes. 

Good preparation of the seed bed is desirable, especially 
to secure a firm seed bed and freedom from weeds. Sor- 
ghum seedlings grow slowly at first, the more so if the 
weather be cool, and so are likely to be injured by weeds or 
even destroyed in broadcasted sowings. 

When planted in rows sorghum is cultivated often 
enough to keep down weeds. In the semi-arid region 
frequent cultivations are beheved to conserve the soil 
moisture. 

Whether broadcasted or sown in rows, sorghum can be 
harrowed until about 6 inches high with practically no 
injury to the young plants. Rows 24 to 30 inches wide 
may be cultivated with a weeder till 2 feet high. 

316. Time of sowing. — Sorghum should not be sown 
until the soil is thoroughly warm in the spring, and usually 
a little later than corn. Early sowings often given imper- 
fect stands. Later seedings can be made at any time in the 
summer provided there is likely to be sufficient moisture 
and time enough to mature before frost. 

317. Seeding in rows. — Sorghums may be sown in 
cultivated rows in widths varying from 18 inches to 44 
inches. Cultivation with horses is difficult, however, if 
the rows are narrower than 28 inches, and 42 or 44 inches 
is the usual distance used. The thickness of the seeding 
in the rows may also be varied. Thick seeding will pro- 
duce finer stems and a larger proportion of leaves, and this 
is therefore desirable where moisture is ample. In dry 
regions, however, where the moisture supply may be very 
scanty, thin seedings are most satisfactory in the long run, 



268 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

even if the yield be somewhat reduced, and the plants 
coarser. 

If the rows be 3 feet wide and the plants 1 inch apart 
in the rows, an acre will contain 174,240 plants. Six 
pounds of seed of a sweet sorghum would, therefore, be 
sufficient if they all grow. Four to 6 pounds of seed to 
the acre is, however, commonly used in the drier regions, 
and in humid regions up to 8 to 10 pounds. 

In the semi-arid regions sorghums are usually planted 
in furrows made with a lister, as this is believed to make 
the plant more firmly rooted, especially as the later cul- 
tivations throw the soil about the base of the stems. At 
Chillicothe, Texas, however, flat planting gave better 
yields in average seasons. 

318. Seeding broadcast. — Where sorghum is sown 
broadcast an average of about 40 pounds to the acre is 
best. Such seedings are usually confined to the sweet 
sorghums the seeds of which do not differ greatly in size 
in the different varieties. This amount of seed if drilled 
will sow 1 seed each inch in 7 inch drill rows. In drier 
regions somewhat less seed is more desirable, but in the 
humid regions 1 to 2 bushels is the usual rate of seeding. 

At the Iowa Experiment Station but slight differences 
in yield were obtained when sown at the rates of 40, 80 and 
100 pounds an acre, excepting that in the thicker seedings 
the stalks were not as coarse. 

319. Number of cuttings. — As a rule sorghum is cut 
but once for fodder. This is all that is possible in the 
Northern States or in the semi-arid regions on unirrigated 
land. In the South, however, where the rainfall is ample 
or where irrigation is available, two or three cuttings may 
be secured in a season, new shoots developing from the 
stubble. To secure a better second crop the rows or 



SORGHUMS 269 

broadcasted stubble are sometimes cultivated after the 
first cutting is removed. 

320. Yields of forage. — The yields of forage from the 
sorghums vary greatly and, as is the case with similar 
coarse plants, are not often weighed. Maximum yields 
probably reach 40 tons of green and about 10 of dry forage. 
Very large yields can be obtained by growing very coarse 
varieties, but smaller yields of less coarse fodder are more 
desirable. In general, 3 tons an acre may be considered 
a good yield and 6 tons a large yield. 

321. Seed. — The seeds of the sorghums differ greatly 
according to variety in size, shape, color and hardness. 
The weight to the bushel will vary from 54 pounds to 62 
pounds per bushel, depending upon the freedom from hulls 
and the variety. The legal weight to the bushel is 30 
pounds in Iowa and Nebraska ; 42 pounds in Missouri and 
Mississippi ; 50 pounds in Arkansas and Tennessee ; 56 
pounds in Kansas ; 57 pounds in Minnesota. 

According to the last census (1909) there was produced 
833,707 bushels of seed on 72,497 acres. Of this Kansas 
produced 565,522 bushels on 53,706 acres. Other im- 
portant seed-producing states are Nebraska, Texas and 
Oklahoma. 

The number of seeds in one pound of different varieties 
is as follows : Sumac, 35,000 ; Orange, 23,500 ; Amber, 
23,000. 

322. Agricultural varieties. — The agricultural varieties 
of the sorghums important for forage include all the sorgos 
or sweet sorghums, the kafirs, milo and feterita, as well as 
Sudan-grass. The broom-corns, the kowliangs, shallu and 
many of the Indian and African-grown varieties have 
dry, pithy stems and are therefore much less valuable 
for forage. 



270 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

The principal sorgos are Amber, Orange, Sumac, Goose- 
neck, Honey and Planter ; there are four important 
varieties of kafir, two of milo and one durra (feterita) 
commonly grown for forage. 

Amber. — Amber was the first sorgo introduced into 
America. It is said to have been developed in Indiana 
from the Chinese sorgo brought to France in 1851 from 
Tsungming Island, China. Amber sorgo has open, usually 
pyramidal panicles w^ith the lower branches drooping; 
glumes black, slightly hairy, shiny, nearly inclosing the 
elliptical reddish-yellow grains. It will mature in Ontario 
and Minnesota. 

Red Amber. — This variety was introduced in 1903 from 
Australia, where it is called Early Orange. It differs 
from amber in the glumes being dark red or reddish- 
brown. It is not early enough to use north of Kansas 
and Maryland. 

Orange. — Orange sorgo was one of the forms introduced 
from Natal in 1857. It has moderately compact heads, 5 
to 8 inches long, oblong, cylindric or spreading at the top ; 
glumes reddish to black, two-thirds as long as the reddish 
yellow grains, which become paler when fully ripe. Usually 
it is two weeks later than Amber and about one week 
earlier than Sumac. 

Planter. — This variety is much grown in Australia 
under the name Planter's Friend and in America has been 
called Sourless from the idea that the juice in the stems 
would not ferment as quickly as that of other varieties. 
Its origin and early history are obscure, but forms much 
like it came from South Africa. It much resembles 
Orange, but is less sweet and juicy. The heads vary in 
compactness and may be spreading above ; glumes pale 
brown, very acute, half inclosing the straw-colored grains. 



SORGHUMS 271 

Planter is not considered a desirable variety under 
American conditions. 

Sumac. — Sumac sorgo, also known as Redtop or Red- 
head, was introduced from Natal in 1857. Sumac varies 
but little and may be easily distinguished by its erect, 
cylindrical, quite dense heads 6 to 9 inches long, some- 
times loose at the top ; glumes dark red or black, hairy, 
much shorter than the seeds ; grains very small, obovate, 
brownish red. Sumac is too late to mature north of a 
line from northern Virginia to southern Kansas. 

Honey. — Honey has also been called Japanese seeded 
cane. It was found growing in Texas in 1904, but its 
earlier history is uncertain. Stems tail, very juicy, 
sweeter than any other variety known ; leaves 14 to 16 ; 
panicles erect, pyramidal, very loose and open, 9 to 11 
inches long, the slender branches more or less drooping ; 
glumes reddish, nearly smooth and about equal in length 
to the dark red-brown grains ; late, maturing with Sumac. 

This variety is probably the best of all in its ability 
to remain erect until maturity. 

Gooseneck. — This is also known as " Texas Seeded Rib- 
bon Cane." It has been known since 1876 and is perhaps 
one of the varieties from Natal. Stems very tall and stout, 
12 to 14 feet high, very sweet and juicy; heads ovoid, 
rather dense, 5 to 9 inches long, 3 to 5 inches broad, all 
recurved or at least inclined at maturity ; glumes hairy, 
black, the lower one awned ; grains obovate, reddish yel- 
low, inclosed by the glumes ; later than Sumac by about 
one week. 

Gooseneck is better for sirup than for forage. It does 
not lodge much in spite of its great height. 

Kafir or Kafir corn. — Kafirs are all originally from 
southeast Africa, whence they were introduced in 1876, 



272 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

but were not much grown until ten years afterwards. 
They differ from other grain sorghums in having the stems 
quite sweet, being intermediate in this respect between the 
sweet sorghums and the pithy-stemmed sorghums. They 
are characterized by stout, short-jointed stems, numerous 
(12-18) broad, rather stiff leaves, and especially by the 
dense, erect, cylindrical or oblong heads. The grains are 
oval, half covered by the short glumes. 

The most important variety is Blackhull kafir with 
heads 10 to 14 inches long, and nearly white grains with 
black glumes. Less important is Red kafir with longer, 
more slender heads, 12 to 18 inches long and dark red grains 
with yellowish to dark gray glumes. Pink kafir recently 
introduced from South Africa, with pink grains, is otherwise 
intermediate between the Blackhull and the Red varieties. 
White kafir with white glumes and grains is the earliest 
variety of kafir, but its heads often remain inclosed in the 
upper sheath. 

Feterita. — Feterita or Sudan durra is an erect-headed 
durra introduced in 1906. It is much cultivated in Sudan 
in the region about Khartum. Feterita has rather slender 
stems, 5 to 7 feet high, slightly juicy and sweet and in- 
clined to produce branches ; heads erect, cylindrical, 
dense but not so compact as milo ; grains bluish white, 
subglobose, much larger than those of milo or kafir ; glumes 
black, shiny, densely hirsute on margins only half inclos- 
ing the seeds ; early, maturing about one week before 
milo. 

Milo. — Milo is also called milo maize and in northern 
Texas is often known simply as maize. It was first grown 
in South Carolina or Georgia between 1880 and 1885. 
With scarcely a doubt it came from Africa, but nothing 
exactly like it has since been obtained from that con- 



SORGHUMS 273 

tinent, but the yellow durra or durra safra of Egypt is 
more nearly like milo than any other known variety. 

Milo is characterized by having stout, rather pithy 
stems ; dense ovate heads, nearly always recurved ; glumes 
dark colored ; florets awned ; grains pale yellow. A white- 
seeded form has also been developed near Chillicothe, 
Texas. Milo seems to be entirely immune from kernel 
smut and head smut. 

323. Seed-production. — The seeding habits of the 
sorghums are excellent and the yield an acre large. The 
grain varieties, kafir, milo and feterita, commonly yield 
25 bushels an acre and maximums of 75 bushels are 
reported for kafir, 46 bushels for milo and 80 bushels 
for feterita. The average yield an acre according to the 
United States Census was 19.4 bushels in 1899 and 19.8 
bushels in 1909. The commercial seed of these grain 
sorghums is usually excellent both in purity and germina- 
tion. 

The seed yield of sorgos is much less definitely known. 
The census of 1909 shows a total production of 833,707 
bushels on 72,497 acres or 11.6 bushels an acre. Over 
70 per cent of this was produced in Kansas, the other 
important states being Nebraska, Texas and Oklahoma. 
Of the total amount probably over one-half was Amber 
sorgo. Good yields range from 20 to 40 bushels an acre. 

The commercial seed of the sorgos often leaves much to 
be desired, as there is usually a mixture of varieties and 
seldom a pure strain. There is, however, no greater 
difficulty in growing pure seed than in the case of the grain 
sorghums. 

The seeds of most sorghums retain their viability well 
for several years, but no detailed studies have been re- 
corded. 



274 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

324. Utilization. — Sorghums for forage may be utilized 
as soilage, hay, fodder or silage, and with due precautions, 
may be pastured. The crop should be harvested before 
frost, if possible, but light frosts do but little damage. If 
the crop becomes injured by frost, the harvesting should 
be completed as rapidly as possible. 

325. Soilage. — Sorghum is an excellent crop to feed 
green, and is probably thus used to a greater extent than 
any other forage crop in America. For this purpose it 
may be cut at any time after it is 2 or 3 feet high. It is 
not desirable to cut, however, until it heads, as both the 
yield and the quality are better at that time. The second 
growth is more rapid if it be cut before heading than after- 
wards, but the total yield is probably reduced if cut either 
before heading or after the dough stage of the seeds is 
reached. 

In growing sorghum for soilage, sowings may be made 
at intervals of about 15 days, as this is about the length 
of time that a sowing will afford desirable green feed. 
Or early and late varieties may be used. The average 
yield of green forage an acre may conservatively be placed 
at 15 tons. 

326. Fodder. — Sorghum in cultivated rows is har- 
vested much the same as corn, being cut either with a row 
binder or with a corn knife. The crop is commonly cut 
for this purpose when the seed is in the early dough stage. 

The thick, juicy stems cure with difficulty. It is best, 
therefore, to begin the curing by having the stalks in 
small shocks, and to combine these into larger ones as the 
curing progresses. The large shocks are put under cover 
when dry enough, or they may be left in the field until 
used. If left in the field, they should be capped or at 
least tied closely at the top so as to shed rain water. 



SORGHUMS 275 

When only small areas are harvested, the curing may be 
done with the aid of a pyramid. 

Sweet sorghum fodder, if left in the field, is likely to 
become sour after about three months, due to the fer- 
mentation of the sugar by yeasts. This difficulty is 
greatest with the saccharine sorghums in humid climates, 
and probably in nearly direct proportion to their sugar 
content. 

327. Hay. — Where sorghum is sown broadcasted or 
in close drills, it is usually cut for hay when the seeds are 
in the early dough stage. In dry regions it may be cut 
with a binder and allowed to cure in the bundles. In 
more humid localities, methods must be used to insure 
as rapid curing as possible, as the rather thick, juicy stems 
dry out but slowly. 

328. Silage. — Sorghum has long been used as silage 
and the results are nearly as satisfactory as corn. Even 
in the semi-arid regions the use of the silo has become 
common in recent years, and an increasing proportion 
of the sorghum crop, both saccharine and grain varieties, 
is thus preserved. With the grain sorghums an incidental 
advantage is secured by the softening of the seeds during 
silage fermentation, so that practically none are voided 
by the animal undigested. 

For preserving as silage, sorghums should be allowed 
to become fully mature. In palatabihty and feeding 
value sorghum silage has proven to be nearly as good as 
corn silage. 

329. Sorghum and legume mixtures. — A mixture com- 
posed of sorghum and cowpeas for hay has long been used. 
The advantages of the mixture are that the sorghum 
supports the cowpeas and in curing keeps the leaves from 
becoming matted. The yield is probably somewhat 



276 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

decreased, but the mixed hay is better than sorghum 
alone. Amber sorgo is generally used in such mixtures, 
but in Texas, Sumac is preferable because it is later. Any 
of the medium late cowpeas may be employed, such as 
Whippoorwill, Brabham and Unknown. 

Where moisture is ample, the seeding may consist of 
I to f bushel per acre of sorghum and 1 bushel of cowpeas. 

When planted in rows under dry-land conditions, 
the rate of planting needs to be regulated in accordance 
with the probable amount of moisture. Theoretically 
there should be one plant of cowpea to two of sorghum. 
At Chillicothe, Texas, 6 pounds of Whippoorwill cowpeas 
to 1 pound of Amber sorghum proved very satisfactory. 

Other legumes that may be used in place of cowpeas 
are soybean, bonavist beans and kulthi beans. 

330. Pasture value. — Sorghum may be used as pas- 
turage, but on account of the danger of poisoning has never 
been much employed for this purpose alone. 

It is a common practice, however, to turn live stock 
into a field of sorghum from which the heads have been 
removed for seed, and when thus utilized there have been 
no reports of deaths resulting. 

The principal danger from sorghum seems to be when 
the young second growth from the stubble is pastured. 

331. Poisoning. — That green sorghums are poisonous 
under certain circumstances has long been known. The 
cause is now generally admitted to be due to prussic acid, 
which under some conditions is formed in the leaves both 
of young and old plants, but has not been found in the 
roots or seeds. The conditions under which prussic acid 
is formed is not clearly understood, but it seems more 
hkely to occur when for any reason the growth of the plant 
has been checked. As the same phenomenon occurs in 



SORGHUMS 277 

Lima beans, Hyacinth beans, Guinea-grass and other 
plants, it is quite certainly not due to a parasite. Poison- 
ing has been most frequently reported when cattle were 
pastured on second-growth sorghum, and on account of 
the danger this is rarely advisable. A few cases of 
poisoning by Johnson-grass are also recorded. 

332. Diseases. — Three diseases cause more or less 
damage to tlie sorghums ; namely, kernel smut {Sphace- 
lotheca sorghi) ; head smut (Sphacelotheca reiliana) ; and 
Red spot or Sorghum blight {Bacillus sorghi). 

Kernel smut affects only the individual grains, and all 
or nearly all the seeds in a head are destroyed, but the 
appearance of the head is but slightly changed. Kernel 
smut may be controlled by treating the seed with formalin 
or with hot water. 

Head smut destroys the entire head, which, as it emerges 
from the sheath, is practically a mass of smut spores 
covered with a whitish membrane. No satisfactory 
treatment for this smut has yet been found. 

Red spot or Might causes characteristic red spots to 
appear on the leaves and stems. When abundant the 
leaves die prematurely. All varieties of sorghum and 
Johnson-grass are subject to the disease, but b}^ selection 
strains that show a high degree of resistance may be secured. 

333. Insect pests. — Only a few insects cause serious 
damage to sorghums. The most important are the 
sorghum midge, the chinch-bug, the corn-worm and the 
fall army-worm. 

Sorghum midge (Diplosis sorghicola). — It has long been 
known that the sorghums seldom produced good seed 
crops in southern Texas. The cause of this is the sorghum 
midge, as first demonstrated by C. R. Ball in 1907. This 
little fly lays its eggs in the flower when in bloom and 



278 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

the young larva feeds on the juices of the developing ovary, 
preventing the formation of the seed. If a head of 
sorghum be bagged before it blooms so as to exclude the 
insect all of the seeds may develop. The insect also lives 
in Setaria glauca, Tridens flava (Sieglingia seslerioides) 
and probably other grasses. Its occurrence is probably 
general in the Southern States over about the same area 
as cotton. 

Corn-worm (Heliothis armiger). — The larva of the corn- 
worm is often found in the heads of sorghum, but mostly 
in those which are rather dense. 

Chinch-hug {Blissus leucopterus) . — Chinch-bugs, when 
abundant, do serious damage to young sorghum plants. 

Fall army-worm (Laphygma frugiperda). — The fall 
army-worm, when abundant, may do serious damage to 
sorghums. The larvae usually feed in the young leaves 
while still coiled, perforating them so that they may break 
off after they have expanded. Sometimes the larvae 
tunnel into the young stem below the developing head, 
which may later break where weakened. 

Sorghu7n aphis (Sipha flava). — This plant louse is 
sometimes abundant, but rarely does much damage. 

334. Sorghum improvement. — The improvement of 
sorghums by breeding presents no particular difficulties, 
but care is necessary to keep any strain pure. Sorghum, 
like corn, is wind pollinated, and different varieties grown 
close together cross freely. Uncontaminated seed can 
easily be obtained by bagging the heads before the stigmas 
are exposed. After the seeds have set, the bags should 
be opened to prevent molding. Natural crosses may be 
found in almost any field of sorghum. Heterozygote 
plants are often prominent from the fact that they grow 
much taller than the other plants. Artificial crosses are 



SORGHUMS 279 

not particularly difficult to make, but the blossoms must 
be emasculated before the anthers open. 

Selections can easily be compared by the head-to-row 
method ; that is, planting each row from a single head, 
preferably in duplicate so as to permit of careful compari- 
sons. 

Among the sweet sorghums, selections should be for 
leafiness, disease resistance, sweetness, juiciness and 
erectness, as well as yield. Yield, indeed, is a secondary 
matter, as otherwise the tallest and coarsest varieties 
would be preferred. 

Among grain-producing sorghums the yield of seed is 
the paramount consideration, but in dual-purpose sor- 
ghums, like milo, kafir and feterita, the other points 
should be considered. 

When a desirable strain is determined upon, the heads 
in the row test should be bagged, and from the seed thus 
secured, a field isolated from other varieties should be 
planted. As soon as a stock of seed is secured, the variety 
may be kept practically pure by saving the seed only from 
the central portions of a field and by promptly removing 
any rogues that may appear. 

SUDAN-GRASS (Andropogou sorghum var.) 

335. Description. — Sudan-grass is probably native 
to Egypt, where it is cultivated under the name " garawi," 
but it may have originated farther south in Africa. It 
was first introduced into the United States in 1909. There 
are strong reasons for believing this plant to be the wild 
original form of the cultivated sorghums, with which it 
spontaneously crosses wherever the two are planted near 
each other. 

It is a tall annual grass, growing under favorable 



280 forage: plants and their culture 

conditions to a height of 6 to 10 feet, but when broad- 
casted thickly it grows only 4 to 5 feet high. The stems 
are fine, the largest stalks seldom larger than a lead pencil. 
Where the plants are scattered they stool abundantly, 
as many as 20 to 100 stalks coming from a single root. 
In general appearance Sudan-grass is very much like 
Johnson-grass, but the two are entirely distinct, for 
Sudan-grass lacks rootstocks and, therefore, never be- 
comes troublesome as a weed. The stems are leafy, 
perfectly erect and seldom lodging. The sugar content 
is small, but enough to give a decided sweetish taste. 
The panicle is loose and open, pyramidal in form and 6 
to 18 inches long. 

336. Adaptations. — Sudan-grass is adapted to the 
same general conditions as the sorghums, but it ripens 
earlier than any sorghum, and will probably mature as 
far north as latitude 49°. It has been grown with marked 
success in the semi-arid region from South Dakota to 
Texas, where it is quite as drought resistant as any other 
sorghum. It grows equally well through the humid 
regions and has given splendid results from Maryland to 
Louisiana. Along the Gulf Coast and in Florida, however, 
it has not succeeded very well, probably on account of 
the great humidity. Under irrigation it seems destined 
to become important, judged from the results secured in 
Colorado, Arizona and California. 

337. Culture. — Sudan-grass may be sown broadcast, 
drilled or in cultivated rows. Where there is sufficient 
moisture, broadcasting or drilling is preferable ; otherwise 
the grass is likely to be coarse. In seeding this way three 
pecks of seed to the acre should be used. 

Under conditions of light rainfall Sudan-grass is prob- 
ably best sown in cultivated rows, though excellent 



SORGHUMS 281 

results have been secured in dry regions from broad- 
casting. In rows 36 inches wide, 3 pounds of seed to the 
acre are sufficient, even with rather thick seeding, which 
is recommended when grown for hay. For seed-pro- 
duction much thinner seeding has given excellent results. 
It is sometimes practicable in humid regions to sow in 
18-inch rows and cultivate. This is especially desirable 
where the land is very weedy. The grass grown under 
such conditions does not become too coarse, and further- 
more, the dense shade kills out the weeds. Five pounds 
of seed to the acre should be used when thus sown. For 
drilhng or broadcasting 15 to 25 pounds of seed per acre, 
depending on rainfall, should be used. The seed should 
not be sown until the ground is warm, that is, about the 
time for planting corn. Some experiments indicate that 
Sudan-grass may be seeded considerably earlier, but 
further experiments are needed before this can be stated 
definitely. The young plants will withstand slight frosts 
without injury. 

338. Utilization. — Sudan-grass may be compared to 
the millets in that it makes a large crop of hay in a short 
season of warm weather. It is preferable to the millets, 
however, in that the hay is much superior and can be fed 
to all kinds of live stock without injury to them. While 
it is closely related to the cultivated sorghums, it has much 
finer stems, enabling it to be cured into hay readily and 
thus filling a somewhat different function on the farm. 

It is probable that the same precautions will need to be 
taken in pasturing Sudan-grass aftermath as with the 
sorghums. 

339. Hay. — Sudan-grass may be cut only once in a 
season at the northern limit of its growth, but southward 
may be cut two, three or even four times, depending on 



282 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

the length of the season and moisture conditions, and the 
time of cutting. Sudan-grass is probabl}^ best cut when 
in full bloom, and early cutting is advisable where two or 
more cuttings are expected. There is little if any deteri- 
oration, however, if the grass be allowed to stand longer, 
as the later culms of the same stool continue to appear 
over a considerable period. 

The grass can be cut with a mower, but more conven- 
iently with a binder, especially in dry regions, as the hay 
cures very readily in bundles. 

At Chillicothe, Texas, 4 cuttings were obtained in 1912 
from a broadcasted tenth-acre plot, the yield being at 
the rate of 8800 pounds of hay per acre. At Arlington 
Farm, Virginia, single cuttings yielded at the rate of 2.8 
tons and 3.5 tons per acre. 

340. Hay mixtures. — Sudan-grass is well adapted for 
growing in mixtures with cowpeas and soybeans or both, 
as they mature well together and the stems of the Sudan- 
grass prevent the leaves of the legumes from matting 
together in curing. At Arlington Farm, Virginia, a plat 
of Sudan-grass and Black cowpeas yielded at the rate of 
4.6 tons an acre, about one-fourth being cowpeas, while 
Johnson-grass and Black cowpeas yielded but 2.8 tons. 

A similar mixture of Sudan-grass and Arlington soy- 
beans, a twining variety, yielded at the rate of 4.4 tons 
per acre, about one-fourth of the material being the 
legume. 

In these trials, Sudan-grass was seeded at the rate of 
20 pounds, and the cowpeas and soybeans 30 pounds an 
acre. 

341. Chemical analysis. — As far as chemical analyses 
can determine, Sudan-grass does not vary greatly in com- 
position from before heading until the seed is ripe. As 



SORGHUMS 



283 



the leaves dry more or less after full bloom, it is probably 
best cut at that time. In the following analyses, perhaps 
the most important point shown is the close comparison 
of the mature plant with that cut in bloom : — 




342. Seed-production. — Sudan-grass yields excellent 
crops of seed, especially if planted in cultivated rows. 
At Arlington Farm, Virginia, a yield of 12.8 bushels an 
acre was obtained when planted in 18-inch rows, while 
but 3.7 bushels were secured from broadcasted plats. At 
Chillicothe, Texas, under farm conditions a yield of 356 
pounds an acre was secured from 36-inch rows, and on 
another farm 642 pounds from 42-inch rows. At the South 
Dakota Experiment Station small plots have yielded at the 
rate of 1000 to 1500 pounds an acre. The seed weighs 
32 to 44 pounds a bushel. 

Seed for commercial purposes should be grown on land 
not infested with Johnson-grass, as the seeds of the two 
are distinguishable only with difficulty. Where Johnson- 
grass is abundant, Sudan-grass for seed should be grown 



284 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

only in cultivated rows, taking great care to hoe out any 
Johnson-grass that may appear in the field. 

Sudan-grass crosses very readily with all of the culti- 
vated varieties of sorghum, so that when it is grown near 
any such variety, more or less numerous hybrid plants will 
appear in the progeny. These hybrids do no harm in the 
fields intended for hay, but where a crop is to be harvested 
for seed the hybrid plants should be rogued out. This 
should be done preferably as soon as the hybrids appear 
in bloom, so as to prevent further crossing in the field, but 
in any event it should be done before the Sudan-grass seed 
is harvested. 



CHAPTER XIV 
MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 

The millets furnish another example of a crop utilized 
in the Old World for human food, but in America grown 
only for forage. They are important mainly as short-sea- 
son summer catch-crops, but their culture is diminishing 
steadily. As hay producers they are far less important 
than the small cereals, namely, oats, barley, wheat and 
rye. 

The term millet has been used agriculturally with a 
wide meaning, having been applied to about 10 species 
of grasses belonging to the genera Setaria or Chcetochloa, 
Panicum, Echinochloa, Pennisetum and sometimes others, 
including Paspalum. The sorghums, too, have fre- 
quently been called '' giant millets." All the '' millets " 
are rapid-growing summer annuals. 

343. The principal millets are the following : — 

Foxtail millet {Setaria italica), including the varieties 
known as Common, German, Italian, Hungarian, Siberian 
and many others. In Europe and America they are used 
wholly as forage, but in other countries have been grown 
for human food. 

Broom-corn millet, Hog Millet or Proso {Panicum 
miliaceum), cultivated in Russia and other countries as 
human food and now grown to a considerable extent in 
America, mainly as a cereal crop, though sometimes cut 

285 



286 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

for hay. This is the " Common millet " of Europe, the 
Miliu7n of the Romans from which the name millet is 
derived. 

Japanese barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) . — 
This is also known as Sanwa millet and Billion-dollar grass. 
In America it is grown purely as a forage crop, but in 
Japan and India the grain is used as a cheap human food. 
The very closely related Echinochloa crus-galli is the 
common Barnyard millet. 

Ragi or finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is much grown 
in India as a cereal, but has never attained favor in 
America. 

Pearl or cat-tail millet {Pennisetum glaucum) is as tall 
and coarse as the sorghums and is extensively grown in 
India and Africa as human food. In the United States it 
is sparingly grown as forage and often called Penicillaria. 

The fruit of the true millets, Panicum, Setaria and 
Echinochloa, differs from that of nearly all other grasses 
in having the grain inclosed in a firm box composed of the 
firmly interlocked lemma and palea. This peculiar fruit 
deserves a distinct name and for it the name caryocist — 
from the Greek words meaning grain and box — seems 
appropriate. 

344. Foxtail millet {Setaria italica). — There is general 
agreement among botanists that the cultivated foxtail 
millets have been derived from the green foxtail {Setaria 
viridis), now a cosmopolitan weedy grass, especially in the 
tropics and warmer portion of the temperate zone. Green 
foxtail is native in temperate Eurasia and botanists have 
distinguished about 8 varieties, largely based on the rel- 
ative length of the awns. 

345. Agricultural history. — Foxtail millet is a plant 
of very ancient cultivation. It is probably a native to 



MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 287 



southern Asia and with Httle doubt its cultivation began 
in that region. According to Bretschneider it was men- 
tioned in connection with rehgious ceremonies in Chinese 
records about 2700 B.C. Its cultivation is also very ancient 
in India and it had 
early spread west to 
Switzerland as its 
seeds there occur in 
the remains of the 
lake dwellers of the 
stone age. , 

346. Adaptations. 
— The foxtail millets 
are very rapid-grow- 
ing, erect annuals, 
which delight in great 
summer heat. In gen- 
eral they require the 
same climatic condi- 
tions as sorghum, but 
as they mature in a 
shorter time, are 
adapted to regions 
where sorghums will 
not develop suffi- 
ciently. They are 
quite as drought re- 
sistant as the sor- 
ghums and are im- 
portant in much the same areas, but as the sorghum will 
produce greater yields of better forage the foxtail millets 
are now used mainly as catch-crops when the time is 
too short for other crops to mature. 




Fig. 29. — Foxtail millet (Setaria italica). 
a and b, dorsal and ventral views of a 
spikelet ; c, lemma. 



288 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Millet bears the reputation of being " hard on the land " 
— that is, reducing the yield of subsequent crops — but 
this is probably no more the case than with any similar 
crop that produces equal yields. 

347. Importance. — The foxtail millets are still im- 
portant as cereals for human food in China, India and 
other Asiatic countries. In mountainous regions of North 
Asia they are cultivated by many wild or half savage 
tribes. 

In Europe the variety known as Hungarian millet or 
Mohar is extensively cultivated for forage on sandy lands 
in Austria, Italy and the Balkan region. 

In America the foxtail millets are grown wholly for 
forage, their culture being most important in the semi- 
arid regions, but by no means insignificant in humid 
areas. 

The area planted in the United States in 1909 was 
1,117,769 acres, yielding 1,546,533 tons, an average of 
1.33 tons an acre. The acreage decreased about one- 
third between 1899 and 1909. The states where millet 
is most important are Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Texas 
and North Dakota. Some, however, is grown in every 
state of the Union. 

348. The agricultural varieties of foxtail millet are 
very numerous and many of them have been given two 
or more names, which unfortunately have become vari- 
ously used by different seedsmen. The problem of deter- 
mining the original or proper application of each name is 
very involved, and it is very doubtful if this can now be 
done satisfactorily. The most prominent commercial 
varieties now used in the United States and Canada are 
the following : — 

Common. — This is the best known and perhaps the 



MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 289 

most widely grown variety. It is fine-stemmed and leafy, 
with a small cylindrical head, compact except near the 
base, and numerous yellow fruits. It has a short season 
of growth and produces a fair yield of good quality hay. 
The California and the Gold Mine are heavy-yielding 
strains of common millet. 

Other names that belong here, in the main at least, 
are Small millet, Dakota millet. Early Harvest millet, 
Missouri millet and American millet. This variety has 
long been cultivated in the United States, but its early 
history is obscure. 

German. — This variety is coarser than the common, 
with broad leaves and a distinctly lobed, much larger and 
somewhat looser head. The individual fruits are yellow 
like the common, but smaller and less flattened. The 
season of growth is fully two weeks longer, and the hay 
yield is larger but not quite so good in quality. 

The Golden Wonder is a selected type of the German 
in which the head is distinctly lobed but more compact, 
longer and more slender. It makes good yields of both 
forage and seed. 

Other names that have been applied to German millet 
are Southern millet. Mammoth millet, Golden millet and 
Bengal-grass. German millet was introduced into the 
United States before 1870, at which time it was well 
known in Tennessee. It has always been the most im- 
portant millet in the South. Owing to its coarser habit 
it yields more per acre than other varieties. It is, however, 
not so resistant to severe drought. The original source 
of German millet is doubtful, probably India, but its 
introduction into Tennessee was from France. 

The Golden Wonder variety is said by Crozier to 
have originated in Michigan in 1884, and its introducers 



290 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

claim it is a cross between German and Hungarian 
millets. 

Hungarian. — This variety possesses a small, compact 
head with seeds much the same shape as those of common 
millet. The color of the fruits is mixed, some being yellow, 
others black or very dark purple, both colors being found 
in one head. The season of maturity is intermediate 
between the common and German, but the yield is practi- 
cally the same as the common, except under dry climatic 
conditions, when it is apt to be less. It is better suited 
to the humid than to semi-arid conditions, but is sometimes 
objectionable on account of its tendency to volunteer. 

Hungarian millet is commonly called Hungarian-grass. 
It is the German millet of Europe, but not that so-called 
in America. It was introduced into the United States as 
early as 1830 and probably much earher, but did not 
become prominent until after the seed had been distrib- 
uted by the Patent Office in 1854. 

Siberian. — This variety was introduced from Russia 
about 1896. It is very similar to common millet, except 
that it has orange-colored fruits. The season of growth 
is a few days longer than the common and the yield 
slightly larger, especially in the semi-arid districts. 

Another strain of it, called the Kursk, was introduced 
by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1899 from 
Kursk Province, Russia, and has since been improved by 
selection. This is the best millet for the semi-arid regions 
from Kansas and Colorado northwards. 

Still other varieties of foxtail millets occur in Japan, 
Korea and Manchuria, but none of these have attained 
a place in American agriculture. 

349. Culture. — Foxtail millets are mostly sown broad- 
cast or drilled on specially prepared ground, but in the 



MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 291 

semi-arid regions row culture is sometimes used, especially 
with the larger varieties like German millet. A well- 
prepared, firm seed bed is best, but sometimes millets are 
sown, with very little soil preparation, as on disked corn 
stubble. 

The seed should not be sown until the ground is warm, 
not earlier as a rule than two or three weeks after the usual 
time for planting corn. From this time on, millet may 
be sown at any time in summer if there is sufficient mois- 
ture and time enough before frost to mature. The least 
touch of frost is fatal to millet. Under the most favorable 
circumstances a crop of millet may be cut in 40 to 50 days 
after seeding. Towards the end of the season from 60 
to 90 da3^s must be allowed. 

350. Seeding. — The rate of seeding recommended by 
different authorities ranges from 2 to 4 pecks to the acre. 
Crozier on the basis of trials at the Michigan Experiment 
Station concludes that 2 pecks is the best for Hungarian 
and common millets on ordinar}^ soils. 

For seed-production, however, thin seedings are best 
and 1 peck to the acre is usually recommended. Under 
semi-arid conditions millets for seed-production are some- 
times grown in cultivated rows. 

At the Ontario Agricultural College three millets were 
sown at six different dates for five years. Japanese 
broom-corn millet yielded best when sown June 1 ; 
Japanese barnyard millet, when sown June 16 ; and Hun- 
garian millet when sown July 1. 

351. Hay. — Millet should be cut for hay just after 
blooming, but for cattle and sheep it may be left until the 
seed are in the late milk stage of development. 

The quality of hay produced is rather inferior, especially 
if allowed to become too ripe before it is cut. No danger 



292 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

is experienced in feeding it to either cattle or sheep, but 
instances of unfavorable results when fed to horses are 
numerous. Hay intended for feeding horses should be cut 
before the seed has formed ; such hay is more palatable 
and is not as dangerous. 

352. Feeding value. — Armsby, on the basis of calori- 
metric experiments, finds that Hungarian millet hay is 
superior to red clover, alfalfa, cowpea or timothy hay for 
beef production by cattle. This finding gives a much 
higher value to Hungarian hay than has heretofore been 
supposed. 

At the Connecticut (Storrs) Experiment Station, how- 
ever, Hungarian millet proved inferior to red clover 
when fed to dairy cows : — 

" In these experiments when clover was fed, the amounts 
of milk and butter were considerably increased and the 
percentages of fat were higher than during the test with 
Hungarian-grass just before and after those with clover. 
The average product from four cows during the first 
series of clover tests (August 10, 14 and 18) of 1891 was 
281 pounds of milk and 15.6 pounds of butter, and the 
average percentage of fat was 5.3 per cent ; while for 
the test with Hungarian-grass (August 3 and 27) the 
average quantity of milk was 249 pounds, and of butter 
12.9 pounds, and the average percentage of fat 5 per 
cent." 

353. Silage from foxtail millet. — Millet has sometimes 
been tried as silage, but is not well adapted for this purpose. 
At the Michigan Experiment Station millet preserved in 
the silo was dry and fluffy when removed and much hke 
hay. It had a pleasant odor, however, and was readily 
eaten by cows. 

At the Vermont Experiment Station two cows fed with 



MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 293 

Hungarian millet silage after hay showed a slight im- 
provement in milk production. One cow that had been 
fed on corn silage lost in quantity and quality of milk 
when changed to Hungarian millet silage, which she ate 
greedily. 

354. Injurious effects. — Foxtail millet has long been 
regarded as an unsatisfactory feed for horses unless fed 
sparingly. The experiment at the North Dakota Ex- 
periment Station in which horses were fed millet hay for 
a long period led to the conclusion " that millet when used 
alone as a coarse food is injurious to horses, — first in 
producing an increased action in the kidneys ; second, in 
causing lameness and swelling of the joints ; third, in 
producing infusion of the blood into the joints ; fourth, 
in destroying the texture of the bones, rendering it softer 
and less tenacious, so that traction causes the ligaments and 
muscles to be torn loose." 

Millet is both laxative and diuretic in its action, 
but except in horses never seems to produce injurious 
effects. It is probable, however, that it is always 
better to feed in connection with other roughage instead 
of alone. 

355. Seed-production. — Millet produces abundant 
seed and is usually harvested with a binder, cured in shocks 
and thrashed with a grain separator. It is commonly cut 
when the seeds are nearly mature, as later cutting results 
in some loss from shattering. 

In a comparative test of 5 years at the Ontario Agri- 
cultural College, Siberian millet averaged 47.5 bushels an 
acre ; Hungarian, 45.2 bushels ; German, 38.8 bushels ; 
Golden Wonder, 18.5 bushels. 

356. Seed. — The seeds of different varieties of millet 
vary considerably in size and in weight per bushel. In 



294 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

most states the legal weight of common and German 
millets is 50 pounds, and of Hungarian-grass 48 pounds 
per bushel. The actual weight, however, varies from 40 
to 55 pounds. One pound contains from 175,000 to 
250,000 seeds. 

357. Diseases and insects. — The only important 
disease of foxtail millet is smut (Ustilago crameri) which 
replaces the grain with a mass of black spores. The disease 
is transmitted by smut spores on the seed, and can be pre- 
vented by treating the seed with hot water in the same 
manner as the bunt of wheat. 

The chinch-bug is very injurious to millets of which 
it seems especially fond. On this account millet is 
sometimes sown around or in strips through a field 
of wheat to attract the bugs. The insects and their 
eggs may then be destroyed by plowing under the 
millet. 

358. Japanese barnyard millet {Echinochloa frumen- 
tacea) . — This millet is known as sanwa millet in India 
and in America has been called billion-dollar grass. 
It is cultivated in Japan, India and other oriental 
countries for human food. It has probably originated 
from the common barnyard millet {E. crus-galli), now 
a cosmopolitan weed in the tropics and in warm temper- 
ate regions. The cultivated plant differs mainly in its 
more nearly erect habit, more turgid seeds and in always 
being awnless. 

Japanese millet is a coarser plant than any foxtail 
millet, and on account of its thick stems does not cure 
readily into hay. It has been recommended for silage, 
but on the whole is probably best used for soiling. Reports 
differ as to its palatability, probably due to the fact that 
it is palatable when young and before heading, but much 



MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 295 

less so as it approaches maturity. It is not known ever 
to cause any ill effects either on horses or on other 
animals. 

The yields are large when there is ample moisture. 
At the Massachusetts Experiment Station it has produced 
as high as 6 tons of hay per acre and seed yields of 67 
bushels per acre. 

359. Broom-corn millet (Panicum miliaceum) is of 
prehistoric cultivation in Europe as indicated by seeds 
found in Switzerland and Italy with human remains of the 
stone age. It was probably even more ancient in central 
Asia, in which region it appears to be native. 

The cultivated plant is sometimes divided into three 
botanical varieties : effusum with loose panicles ; con- 
tradum with the panicles denser above ; and compadum 
with dense panicles. 

The numerous agricultural varieties are distinguished 
primarily by the panicles, secondarily by the color of the 
glumes which may be red, black or white. 

Broom-corn millet is cultivated largely in Europe, 
especially in Russia and throughout temperate Asia. 
It is invariably grown as a cereal crop, but to some 
extent is used as forage. In America it has been grown 
most in the Dakotas and Manitoba, though it is well 
adapted to a large portion of the West, and fairly well to 
the East. 

From a forage standpoint, broom-corn millet is not as 
desirable as the foxtail millets, the yield being less as a 
rule and the stems more woody and less leafy. For seed- 
production they are, however, at least as good as the fox- 
tail millets. 

The culture of broom-corn millet is essentially the same 
as that of foxtail millet. 



296 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



360. Comparative Hay Yields in Pounds to the Acre of 
Different Millets at Several Experiment Stations 





1 
S o 


k 


5 t, 
S2 


1 
^2 


l-H 

« 

^2 


1 




g^ 


X H 
a ■< 


H H 


H5 


SM 


Variety 


ZOJ 


<o 












< , 


o ^ 




o 


r/) .- 


S ?^ 




O H 


?;2 d 


S H 


GD H 


^ & 


< w 








i« 






Kg 




£^s 




S s 


Is 


Is 


^g 




s 


o"^ 


►> 


s 




1' 




Hay 


Hay 


Hay 


Hay 


Hay 


Green 


German from Dakota . 


4000 












Common from Dakota 


4840 












German from Tennessee 


3800 












German from south 


2136 












German 


5248 


5600 


7700 


2611 






Common 


2952 


5600 




3360 




14520 


Hungarian .... 


2240 


6600 


4840 


4820 


3500 




Hungarian .... 


2328 












Japanese foxtail . 


3440 












Japanese broom - corn 














(P. miliaceum) 


4232 


8600 


5600 








Hog (P. miliaceum) 


2632 




3320 


3000 


1150 


21054 


Golden Wonder . . 




7000 






5000 


17908 


Siberian foxtail . . . 




6400 


3420 






10406 


Japanese barnyard . 




6200 






5250 


32912 



361. Shama millet (Echinochloa colona) is a native 
of India where it is more or less cultivated for human 
food, but it is now generally spread through the tropics 
and in the warmer parts of the temperate zone. It is 
not uncommon in the southern portion of the United 
States, especially the southwest and in Mexico. It has 
a general resemblance to barnyard millets, but is much 
smaller in every way. The panicle is narrow and open 
and the spikelets unawned. The grass has been tested at 



MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 297 



many experiment stations on small plots, but has not been 
found valuable enough in comparison with other millets. 

362. Ragi, finger millet or coracan {Eleusine coracana) 
is much cultivated in India and to some extent in Africa 
as a cereal. It produces large crops of rather poor grain 
which is therefore very cheap. The cultivated plant is 
supposed to be a deriva- 
tive of the wild Eleusine 
indica, native to India. 
It is markedly charac- 
terized by having 5 to 
7 elongate one-sided 
spikes arranged in an 
umbel. 

Ragi has much the 
same adaptations as 
foxtail millet, but is 
coarser and more leafy. 
The varieties are nu- 
merous. In small tests 
it has succeeded well 
throughout the South- 
ern States, but has never 
come into use as a forage 
crop in America. 

363. Texas millet 
{Panicum texanum) . — 
This annual grass is 
native to Texas and 
adjacent Mexico. It 
occurs mainly on the 

bottom lands along streams, and from its occurrence along 
the Colorado River, Texas, is most commonly known as 




Fig. 30. — Texas millet (Panicum 
texanum). a and b, dorsal and ventral 
views of a spikelet ; c, lemma. 



298 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Colorado-grass. It has shown a marked tendency to 
volunteer in cultivated fields after the manner of crab- 
grass, not only in Texas, but also in Alabama and other 
Southern States where it has been introduced. 

The hay of Texas millet bears an excellent reputation, 
and as it is practically always a volunteer crop, it is highly 
esteemed. The seed habits are good, and more or less 
seed is handled by Texas seedsmen. As a crop to be 
planted, however, it cannot compete with the foxtail 
millets, as it does not yield so heavily. In the southern 
half of the Gulf States it is probably worth while to estab- 
lish it generally so that it will make a portion, at least, of 
the volunteer grasses that hold their own in cultivated 
land. It rarely does well, however, except on loams and 
clays, so there is little use to plant it on sandy lands. 

CEREALS FOR HAY 

364. All of the common small grains, namely, wheat, 
spelt, emmer, rye, oats and barley, may be and are 
utilized more or less for hay production, either alone or 
grown in mixtures with such legumes as crimson clover, 
vetches and field peas. The production of hay from 
such crops is most important in regions where the rainfall 
is comparatively light. Thus wheat is very commonly cut 
for hay in the Columbia Basin region of Washington, 
Oregon and Idaho ; barley in the same region, but more 
so in California. Rye and oats are more or less utilized 
for this purpose in all regions where these cereals are grown. 
According to the Thirteenth United States Census, the total 
area of small grains thus cut for hay aggregates 4,324,878 
acres, with an average yield of 1.24 tons an acre. This 
total acreage is slightly greater than that of alfalfa and 
nearly four times as large as that of the millets. Such 



MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 299 

cereal hays are mostly utilized for feeding to cows, but with 
care may be satisfactorily fed to horses. Rye is somewhat 
objectionable on account of awns on the heads, and the 
same thing applies to awned varieties of wheat and barley. 

The straw of all of these cereals is also utilized as feed, 
that of oats being considered far more valuable than any 
of the other small grains. 

The same use of small grains for hay is made in Australia 
and New Zealand. In Australia over half of the total hay 
crop is made from wheat and nearly half of it from oats. In 
New Zealand over half of the hay crop is produced by oats. 

Where cereals are thus cut for hay, it is the usual 
practice to cut them in the late milk or early dough stage. 
In the western United States, where wheat is largely har- 
vested by headers or by harvesters, it is a very common 
practice to open up the field ; that is, cut one or more 
swaths clear around the field and one or more across the 
field so as to make a passage for the grain harvesting 
machinery. The grain cut in opening up the field is 
commonly used for ha3^ 

OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 

365. Chess or cheat (Bromus secalinus). — Cheat is 
an annual grass native to the Old World and frequently 
occurring as a weed in wheat fields. The adaptations 
of the two plants are very similar and formerly the idea 
was held that cheat is a degenerate or changed form of 
wheat, whence its name. 

Cheat is sometimes grown as an annual crop for hay, 
planting it in the fall like winter wheat. Formerly it 
was quite largely grown in western Oregon. In recent 
years it has been cultivated in northern Georgia under 
the name of Arctic-grass. 



300 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



Cheat is easily grown and produces good crops of hay. 
In Georgia, Hverymen consider it equal to timothy, es- 
pecially if it be cut when the seeds are in the dough stage. 
For hay purposes it probably has no advantage over the 
ordinary small grains. 

366. Canary-grass (Phalaris canariensis) is, with little 
doubt, native to the countries about the western end of 
the Mediterranean, though there is doubt about its 
nativity on the Canary Islands, whence its name is 
derived. It was introduced into the Netherlands from 
Spain about the middle of the sixteenth century, which 
seems to be the first definite mention of the grass. At the 
present time it is cultivated mainly in Turkey 
and adjacent countries for the seed, which is 
used to some extent as human food, but 
largely as feed for cage birds. 

Canary-grass is an annual species, growing 
to a height of 3 to 4| feet, several culms 
usually stooling from the same root. It is 
conspicuously characterized by its dense 
oblong head-like panicle, the white glumes 
having green nerves. 

Canary-grass has succeeded very well in Cali- 
fornia planted in fall, and in Saskatchewan 
sown in spring. It will probably succeed 
wherever barley can be grown, but the de- 
Canary grass mand for the seed is limited. As a hay crop 

(Phalaris ca- • . ■, , t , ^ i 

nariensis). ^^ ^^^ ^^ apparent advantage over wheat, 
oats or barley. Its mode of culture is iden- 
tical with that of the small grains. At Indian Head, 
Saskatchewan, yields of 29 bushels of seed and 3960 pounds 
of straw per acre have been secured, and in California 
23,952 pounds of seed were grown on 40 acres in 1905. 




Fig. 31.— 



MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 301 

367. Penicillaria (Pennisetum glaucum). — Penicillaria, 
Pencilaria or Cat-tail millet is most commonly known as 
Pearl millet, and there are several synonyms of its scientific 
name. It is probably native to Africa, where it is largely 
cultivated by the natives, but it is most cultivated in India. 
It was early brought to the West Indies from Africa. It is 
a tall, erect annual, usually growing 5 to 8 feet high, but 
in Florida attaining a height of 16 feet on rich soil. The 
stems are not quite as stout as sorghum, but have shorter 
nodes, more woody cortex and rather dry pith without 
sugar content. The head is cylindrical, very dense, 4 to 
14 inches long and bearing numerous round white ex- 
posed grains. 

There are several varieties, eight or more having been 
introduced by the United States Department of Agri- 
culture. The common variety seems to be that grown 
extensively in India, where it is known as hajri. In one 
variety from South Africa, the heads are much shorter 
and nearly as thick as long. 

Penicillaria is adapted to practically the same con- 
ditions as the sorghums. The common American variety 
will mature seed as far north as Maryland and Nebraska, 
but doubtless earlier-maturing sorts could be developed. 

It was formerly grown to a greater degree than at pres- 
ent, both in the South and in the semi-arid regions, but 
it has given way in competition with the sorghums. As 
a forage it is not so desirable on account of the harder 
pithy stems. As a cereal it has never had any standing 
in America, as the yield in grain is meager and of poor 
quality, and furthermore is subjected to much loss by 
birds. 

As a soilage crop, penicillaria will in the South yield 
very heavily and perhaps is exceeded by no other grass. 



302 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

For this purpose it is a very useful forage plant. It 
should be cut preferably when 3 or 4 feet high before the 
stems become hard and pithy. In the southernmost 
states it can be cut three or four times in a season and on 
very rich soil as many as six cuttings may be obtained. 

Penicillaria has been recommended for silage, but for 
this purpose is not as desirable as corn or sorghum. 

The culture of penicillaria is practically like that of 
corn or sorghum. It is most commonly planted in rows 

3 feet wide and 3 to 6 inches apart in the rows, under which 
conditions it stools abundantly. For thus planting, about 

4 pounds of seed per acre are needed. It may also be 
planted thickly, either drilled or broadcasted, under 
which conditions it does not stool so much nor grow so 
large. Thus sown it may be cut and cured as hay, but 
on account of its thick stems is not easily dried. For this 
purpose about 30 pounds of seed should be sown to the acre. 
Sowing should take place about the same time as corn, as 
the plant does not withstand frost either in spring or fall. 

On good soils penicillaria will yield as large or larger 
crops of forage than sorghums, but on poorer soils not 
so much. Yields to the acre of green fodder have been re- 
corded by experiment stations as follows : South Carohna, 
6 cuttings, 94,424 pounds ; Georgia, 52,416 pounds in 
3 cuttings ; Alabama, 13,800 pounds ; Louisiana, 16,000 
pounds ; Kentucky, 80,320 in 2 cuttings ; Delaware, 
9964 pounds ; New Mexico, 56,600 pounds ; Arkansas, 
9600 pounds ; California, 63,000 pounds ; New Jersey, 
24,000 pounds. 

Dry fodder yields to the acre are reported as follows : 
North Carolina, 6806 pounds ; Kentucky, 32,800 pounds ; 
Georgia, 19,474 pounds ; Alabama, 2900 pounds ; Arkansas, 
9600 pounds ; Washington, D.C., 15,440 pounds. 



MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 303 

Notwithstanding large yields, penicillaria has not 
become popular, as have other coarse forage grasses, 
especially sorghum and Japanese sugar-cane. 

At the Kansas Experiment Station, penicillaria stover 
was compared with kafir corn stover in feeding cattle. 
In a 22-day test the cattle ate only half as much of the 
former as of the latter. Those eating the penicillaria 
stover lost an average of 30 pounds each, while those 
fed on kafir corn gained an average of 6.9 pounds 
each. 

American seed is at present grown mainly in Georgia, 
where the yield is said to average 500 pounds to the acre. 
Where English sparrows are abundant, it is useless to try 
to get a seed crop. 

368. Teosinte {Euchlcena rnexicana) is a coarse annual 
grass, growing 8 to 12 feet high, and commonly producing 
many stems from the same root. It is a native of tropical 
America, probably Mexico, and is closely related to corn, 
with which it forms hybrids. 

Teosinte requires a rich soil and a long season of moist 
hot weather for its best development. It never has ma- 
tured north of central Mississippi, but as a fodder crop 
is occasionally grown as far north as Maryland. The 
first frosts of autumn promptly turn the leaves brown. 

In recent years its culture in the United States has 
dwindled. On soils of moderate fertility it does not yield 
as well as the sorghums and on rich soils not so heavily 
as Japanese sugar-cane. The rather high cost of the seed 
has perhaps also been a factor in reducing the culture of 
teosinte. 

Teosinte may be used in the same way as sorghum ; 
namely, as fodder, green feed or silage. If cut green for 
silage two cuttings each 4 or 5 feet high can be secured in 



804 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

a season. The stems contain a small amount of sugar 
and the herbage is readily eaten by animals. 

On account of its abundant tillering, teosinte is best 
planted in hills 4 to 5 feet apart each way, which requires 
about 3 pounds of seed per acre ; or it may be planted 
in rows 4 to 5 feet wide. 

Yields to the acre have been reported by various experi- 
ment stations as follows : Louisiana (Audubon Park), 50 
tons green weight ; Georgia, 38,000 pounds green weight ; 
Mississippi, 44,000 pounds green weight ; North Carolina, 
4021 pounds dry fodder against 4576 pounds for Orange 
sorghum; South Carolina (Charleston), 43,923 pounds 
green weight in 6 cuttings ; New Jersey, 9 tons, as com- 
pared to 12.4 tons for milo. 



CHAPTER XV 
ALFALFA 

Alfalfa is at the present time the third most important 
forage crop in America, being exceeded only by timothy and 
red clover. Under irrigation in semiarid regions no other 
perennial forage crop is known which will yield so boun- 
teously. The future agricultural development of western 
America will to a large degree be associated with the cul- 
ture of this plant. Further, it may be safely prophesied 
that alfalfa will become of increasing importance in the 
east, as the peculiar requirements for its successful culture 
become better known. 

369. Agricultural history. — Alfalfa was cultivated by 
the Greeks and Romans. According to Pliny, it was 
introduced into Greece from Media at the time of the 
Persian wars with King Darius ; that is, about 470 B.C. 
Pliny's statement agrees with the earlier account of 
Strabo. Perhaps both are based on the authority of 
Greek writers on agriculture whose works are referred 
to by Pliny, but which have been lost. Most writers 
have accepted the statement of Pliny and of Strabo, but 
Fee doubts its correctness. Media or Persia is in all 
probabihty the region of its original culture. Confirma- 
tion of this conclusion is found in the fact that the wild 
alfalfa of that region most closely resembles the culti- 
vated. 

Alfalfa is therefore the oldest plant, so far as known, to 
X 305 



306 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

be cultivated solely for forage. Furthermore, it is the 
only plant cultivated for such purpose by Asiatic peoples 
until modern times. Its culture in Italy in the days of 
the Roman Empire is referred to by Virgil, Columella 
and Varro, and it was doubtless introduced into Spain in 
imperial Roman days. In the sixteenth century, it was 
introduced into France and southern Germany and from 
thence to England at least as early as 1650. 

The early American colonists made many attempts to 
cultivate the plant, but only in a few localities was any 
decided success achieved. Its rapid development in the 
United States dates from 1854, when it was introduced 
into California from Chile. 

370. Origin of the common names. — The name alfalfa 
is of Arabian origin, adopted and modified by the Spanish. 
By different authorities the Arabian word is variously 
spelt, with or without the prefix el or al, thus, fisfisat, 
isfast, elkasah, alfafa, alfasafat. The Arabian designations 
are probably modifications of the Persian name uspust, 
aspest or isfist. The word alfalfa is now used almost 
exclusively in the United States. 

In most countries, however, the name lucern is in 
common usage. According to some authorities the name 
is derived from the valley of Lucerna in northwestern 
Italy. De Candolle, however, considers it was probably 
derived from its local name in the south of France, laou- 
zerdo, apparently a corruption of the Catalonian name 
userdas. Historical evidence indicates that the plant 
was introduced into France from Spain and not from Italy. 
The word Inzer ne was apparently first recorded in 1587 
by Dalechamps who also gives the form luzert. 

The name medick is derived directly from the Greek 
Medical and Latin Medica, so called because introduced 



ALFALFA 307 

into Greece from Media. Purple medick is ordinary 
alfalfa, while yellow medick is sickle alfalfa, but the names 
are rarely used. Black medick, however, is still often 
used for Medicago lupulina, but yellow trefoil is a more 
popular name. Erha medica is still an appellation of 
alfalfa in Italy and the Spanish sometimes use niielga or 
melga, perhaps corrupted forms of Medica. 

371. Heat relations. — In chmates of low humidity, 
alfalfa seems able to withstand extreme summer tempera- 
tures under irrigation. No injury from heat has ever 
been recorded in such climates as those of Arizona and 
Punjab, India. It seems probable, therefore, that the 
crop is not adaptatively limited in its heat relations. 

High temperatures combined with even moderate 
humidity are so injurious that the crop is nowhere success- 
fully grown in humid subtropical or tropical regions. 
This is partly due to the fact that such conditions are 
favorable to many weedy plants which smother out the 
alfalfa, but even if grown in cultivated rows, alfalfa 
languishes under such climatic conditions. 

372. Cold relations. — The minimum temperature that 
alfalfa will withstand without injury is difficult to deter- 
mine accurately, as it is affected by other factors, among 
them variety, degree of dormancy, thickness of stand, 
soil moisture and snow cover. These factors are further 
discussed under winterkilling. In Europe, according to 
Stebler, a temperature of — 13° Fahrenheit is injurious 
only when the plants are unprotected by snow. 

Brand and Waldron report the effects of winter cold 
on 68 varieties and strains of alfalfa at Dickinson, North 
Dakota, in the winter of 1908-1909, when a minimum of 
— 31° Fahrenheit was reached. The seeds were planted 
both in drilled rows and in hills in the spring of 1908, 



308 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

and the re.sulting plants were not protected by snow 
during the coldest weather. The drilled rows suffered less 
than the hills. 

Tabulated according to the geographical origin of the 
strains, the results are shown in the following table : — 

Average Mortality of Regional Strains of Alfalfa 

PLANTED IN IIlLLS AT DiCKINSON, NORTH DaKOTA, 1908-1909 

5 strains from South America 99.6% 

2 strains from Africa 100.0% 

2 strains from Russia 83.9% 

5 strains from Germany 83.1% 

5 strains from France 89.6% 

1 strain from Italy 98.7% 

1 strain from Spain 100.0% 

4 strains from Arabia 100.0% 

12 strains from Turkestan 72.3% 

3 strains from Mongolia 33.5% 

2 strains from Canada 45.4% 

2 strains from Mexico 85.0% 

18 strains from United States 83.3% 

10 strains from Utah 90.4% 

1 strain from Colorado 86.1% 

1 strain from Kansas 84.8% 

3 strains from Nebraska 76.4% 

3 strains from Montana 65.4% 

1 strain Grimm alfalfa, from Pargo, North Dakota . 2.8% 

1 strain Grimm alfalfa, from Clearwater, Minnesota . 7.0% 

1 strain Turkestan alfalfa, from Highmore, S. D. . 9.2% 

While the mortality may not have been due to cold 
alone, the data clearly indicate great differences in cold 
resistance, as a rule correlated with the severity of the 
winter climate of the region whence the seed was secured. 

Several of the same strains reported on had been sown 
broadcast in neighboring plots in the spring of 1907, 
and were exposed to the same conditions in the winter 



ALFALFA 309 

of 1908-1909. The mortality in these plots was very 
much less, in most cases not enough to injure the stand 
seriously. It is not clear to what extent this lessened 
mortality was due to the alfalfa being broadcasted and 
the plants therefore close together, and how far the greater 
age of the plants, and perhaps other factors, had a bear- 
ing on the results. The fact that the surviving stand 
varied considerably in different parts of the broadcasted 
plots indicates that other factors than low temperature 
were concerned. 

The data clearly show, however, that a temperature 
of — 31° Fahrenheit in a region of comparatively low 
humidity is decidedly injurious to most varieties of al- 
falfa when growing in hills or rows and unprotected by 
snow. Even the most hardy cultivated sorts suffer a slight 
loss under such conditions. 

Undoubtedly the highest degree of cold resistance is 
found in Siberian strains of sickle alfalfa. According to 
Hansen this occurs even farther northward than Yakutsk, 
latitude 62°, where a minimum temperature of — 83° 
Fahrenheit is recorded. 

Extensive trials of alfalfa varieties were conducted at 
the Minnesota Experiment Station during six years, and 
data were kept on the loss due to winterkilling. The loss 
varied greatly in different winters and between different 
varieties in the same winter. In most cases Grimm alfalfa 
suffered the least loss. Turkestan proved very variable, 
a fact doubtless connected with the wide origin of the 
commercial seed. In one winter with a minimum tem- 
perature of — 17° Fahrenheit three strains of Turkestan 
alfalfa suffered no loss, while 14 strains of Grimm alfalfa 
lost from 15 to 23 per cent, a much higher loss than oc- 
curred in other winters with more severe cold. 



310 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

373. Humidity relations. — Alfalfa is especially adapted 
to regions possessing a semi-arid climate, and in such areas 
succeeds well in nearly all types of soil, and through a 
wide range of normal annual temperatures. In moister 
climates, such as much of Europe and the eastern United 
States, success is rarely secured excepting where soil 
conditions are unusually favorable. In arid regions the 
plant will withstand great heat without injury, but a 
combination of heat and humidity is decidedly harmful. 
On this account, success with the crop in tropical or sub- 
tropical regions can be secured only where the climatic 
conditions are such as to render artificial irrigation 
necessary. 

Even in temperate climates, wet weather is more 
injurious than drought. According to Stebler, little 
success is secured in Europe where the annual rainfall 
exceeds 32 to 36 inches. In the United States, however, 
marked success is obtained on certain soils in Mississippi 
and Alabama, where the annual rainfall exceeds 50 inches, 
but in general an excess of annual rainfall over 40 inches 
is decidedly unfavorable to the plant. 

374. Soil relations. — Under semi-arid conditions of 
climate, alfalfa succeeds in most types of soil excepting 
those heavily charged with alkali. On account of its 
great root development, deep soils are especially suitable 
to alfalfa. Good drainage is also essential, as alfalfa 
roots will not grow in water-logged soils. 

Under humid climatic conditions, alfalfa is especially 
intolerant of adverse soil conditions. In such climates, 
its culture is rarely successful, except on deep, fairly fer- 
tile, well-drained soils rich in lime. A few types of soil 
rich in potash, but poor in lime, have also been found suit- 
able, but liming increases the crop even in such soils. 



ALFALFA 



311 




312 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



375. Distribution of the alfalfa crop. — The regions in 
which alfalfa is prominent as a crop are those possessing 
the proper climatic conditions, or in lieu of this, unusually 
favorable soil conditions. Thus the crop is important 
in the western United States, the Mediterranean region, 
Australia, Argentina, Chile, Peru, South Africa and 
Central Asia because of favorable climate. Regions with 




Fig. 33. — Map of the United States and Canada showing acreage of 
alfalfa. Figures = acres. 

less favorable climate, but with an unusually favorable 
limestone soil occur in Mississippi, Alabama, New York, 
Ohio and other states and in portions of Europe. 

The present northernmost limit of American culture 
is near the 51st parallel of latitude, in Assiniboia. In 
Colorado it is grown successfully at an altitude of 8637 
feet, and one field 14 years old is recorded as being 7900 
feet above sea level. 

The accompanying map shows the chstribution of the 
crop by acres in the United States and Canada. 



ALFALFA 313 

376. Botanical varieties of alfalfa. — Wild alfalfas 
occur over much of central and western Asia, scattered 
through the southern half of Europe, and in the mountains 
of northern Africa. The wild plants are very variable, 
but some are so much like the cultivated that there is 
no reason to doubt the genetic origin of the latter. 

Besides the ordinary cultivated form of alfalfa about 
15 distinct varieties have been named by botanists. Only 
one of these has been of any particular economic impor- 
tance, namely, variety falcata with yellow flowers and 
smooth sickle-shaped pods. The usefulness of this variety 
lies mainly in its hardiness and the valuable hybrids it 
makes with ordinary alfalfa. 

377. Cultivated varieties of alfalfa. — At the present 
time, there are no established varieties of alfalfa that 
are even approximately pure strains. Every field, from 
whatever source, exhibits a widely diverse assemblage of 
individuals. Nevertheless, several of the commercial 
varieties or regional strains show combinations of char- 
acters by which they may be distinguished. Others, 
like Turkestan, can be differentiated from common alfalfa 
only by obscure differences in behavior. 

The agronomically important varieties or strains of 
alfalfa include common or ordinary, Turkestan, Arabian, 
Peruvian, Siberian or sickle, and variegated (including 
sand lucern and Grimm). 

Co7nmon or ordinary alfalfa. — Under this category is in- 
cluded the alfalfa ordinarily grown in Europe, the United 
States, Argentina and Australia. Most of the European 
seed imported into the United States is from Provence, 
France, but seed is also grown in Italy, Hungary and 
Germany. There is a growing tendency in the American 
seed trade to designate the state in which the seed is 



314 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

grown. Dryland alfalfa is ordinary alfalfa grown one or 
more generations under semi-arid conditions without 
irrigation. The seed is generally considered superior for 
dryland farming. 

Turkestan alfalfa has been imported into the United 
States since 1898. The seed can usually be distinguished 
by the weed seeds present, especially Eruca saliva and 
Centaurea picris. The plants are indistinguishable from 
ordinary alfalfa. The consensus of American opinion is 
that this variety is inferior in the humid eastern United 
States, but in the semi-arid regions has some superiority 
in drought and cold endurance. Under American condi- 
tions, Turkestan alfalfa produces but very small crops of 
seed. On this account, it is not increasing in importance 
notwithstanding the fact that most of imported alfalfa 
seed is from Turkestan. 

Arabian alfalfa comes from the lower valley of the 
Euphrates. It is characterized by its hairiness, large 
leaflets, very rapid growth and relatively short life. The 
seeds, too, are decidedly larger than any other strain. 
It begins to grow and continues growth at a lower tempera- 
ture than common alfalfa, which, together with its remark- 
ably rapid growth, enables it to produce more cuttings 
in a season than any other variety. In the Imperial Valley 
of California, it has produced twelve cuttings in a season 
and in the Sacramento Valley of the same state, eight 
cuttings. Unfortunately it is short-lived, the stand be- 
coming thin by the third year and but few plants surviv- 
ing the fourth year. 

Peruvian alfalfa. — This variety (Medicago saliva var. 
polia Brand) comes from the highlands of Peru. It is 
distinguished by the marked pubescence of its whole 
herbage, which gives it a somewhat bluish appearance; 



ALFALFA 315 

its relatively coarse, very erect stems ; its comparatively 
large leaflets. Physiologically it behaves much like 
Arabian alfalfa in that it begins to grow earlier in spring 
and continues growing later in fall than ordinary alfalfa. 
Partly on this account it is likely to be injured by severe 
cold. Its large size and rapid growth make it a valuable 
variety for California and Arizona. 

Variegated alfalfa. — This term is applied to crosses 
between ordinary purple-flowered alfalfa and the yellow- 
flowered sickle alfalfa. In the cross, a great variety of 
flower colors appear — white, cream, yellow, bluish-green, 
smoky-green and purple. Variegated alfalfa is in some 
other respects intermediate between its parents. It is 
rather decumbent in habit, but has greater cold endurance 
than ordinary alfalfa. This is partly due to its tendency 
to produce rootstocks, a character inherited from its 
yellow-flowered parent. 

Under the name sand lucern, variegated alfalfa has 
long been grown in Europe, especially Germany, where it 
enjoys the reputation of being superior for sandy soils. 
In the United States, sand lucern has given excellent 
results, being superior in both drought resistance and 
winter hardiness. 

Grimm alfalfa is an acclimated strain of sand lucern 
brought to Minnesota from Wertheim, Germany, in 1857. 
In its half century of culture under severe climatic condi- 
tions, it has apparently gained additional winter hardi- 
ness through the elimination of the less hardy plants. 
At the present time, Grimm alfalfa seed is the most ex- 
pensive on the market, being greatly in demand for sowing 
in states where the winter is very severe. 

Yellow, sickle or Siberian alfalfa occurs wild throughout 
northern Europe and Siberia. The European form was 



816 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

formerly cultivated to a slight extent in Sweden and else- 
where in Europe. The yield, however, is small on account 
of its usually decumbent habit and the lack of aftermath, 
and the stems early become woody. The seed is expensive 
because it shatters readily. 

Several forms from Siberia have been introduced into 
the United States in recent years, especially with the end 
in view of securing hardier alfalfas for Dakota, Montana, 
and other states with cold winters. Some of these Sibe- 
rian strains are erect or nearly so, while others have a 
remarkable development of rootstocks. It is not unlikely 
that some of these may prove highly valuable, provided 
seed can be grown satisfactorily. In any case, they offer 
high promise for breeding work. 

378. Importance of the varieties. — Thus far, regional 
or other varieties have been of relatively small importance. 
At least 95 per cent of the alfalfa of the United States 
may be called ordinary alfalfa. Most of the seed is either 
American grown, or imported from Turkestan. The 
Turkestan alfalfa is slightly more resistant to both cold 
and drought. Variegated alfalfa, especially the Grimm 
strain, is decidedly more cold resistant than ordinary 
alfalfa, and with cheaper seed will come into much larger 
use, especially in the northern tier of states. Peruvian 
alfalfa is more valuable than common alfalfa in the south- 
western states, owing to its large size and rapid growth, 
but as yet it is not largely cultivated. Arabian alfalfa 
lasts only about two years, and in spite of its very rapid 
growth, this has militated against its use. 

It is altogether likely that in the further development of 
alfalfa culture, improved varieties will occupy a more 
prominent place, especially such as are cold enduring or 
which produce large seed crops. 



ALFALFA 



317 



379. Influence of source of seed. — The general con- 
clusion to be drawn from the available data concerning 
the influence of the source of the seed of alfalfa, is that 
the best results are as a rule to be secured from locally 
grown seed, provided there is no difference in variety in- 
volved. It may happen that a newly introduced variety 
or strain is superior not on account of source of the seed 
but because of inherently better qualities. 

In places where alfalfa is grown, but which must depend 
on distant sources for seed, the question of the relative 
value of different regional strains becomes important. 
Elsewhere this factor is of minor consequence. 

In Germany and France several investigators have 
compared the relative behavior of plots sown respectively 
with seed of American and of European alfalfa from dif- 
ferent sources. In all the trials reported the yield of hay 
from the American seed was least. At Hohenheim, 
Germany, Kirchner found American alfalfa more subject 
to mildew than European. Provence-grown alfalfa seed 
is held in high regard throughout Europe, but comparative 
trials have not shown that it bears consistently heavier 
yields than other European grown seeds. 

At three Danish experiment stations, the following 
results were secured with regional strains : — 



Origin 


1910 


1911 


1912 


Hungarian 


100 


100 


100 


German 


102 


92 


89 


French 


102 


96 


97 


Italian 


104 


96 


90 


Russian '. . . . 


94 


83 


69 


American 


45 


49 


67 



318 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

The amount of accurate data concerning the relative 
value in America of alfalfa seed from various sources is 
not large, but is supplemented by the experience of prac- 
tical farmers. In the Eastern States French (Provence) 
seed has as a rule proven quite as satisfactory as western 
American seed, while Turkestan seed has given decidedly 
inferior results. In the West, ^cepting where the winters 
are very severe, Provence seed has also proven very satis- 
factory. California-grown seed is not held in high repute, 
even in that state, but there seems insufficient evidence 
to warrant this attitude. In general southern-grown seed 
is not favored in more northern regions, and the evidence 
is fairly conclusive that such strains are inferior in cold 
resistance. 

380. Comparison of regional strains. — In recent years 
many experiment stations have tested the relative yield- 
ing capacities of alfalfa seed from different sources. This 
has been done more with the idea of determining whether 
any of the regional strains possess really different qual- 
ities as many of them come from countries where no con- 
siderable quantity of commercial seed is produced. 

Practically all the imported commercial seed used in 
America is from Turkestan, so that the only source of 
seed problem which is at present of much concern, is the 
relative yielding capacity of Turkestan as compared with 
that from various American states. 

The data thus far secured at most of the experiment 
stations do not admit of very clear deductions being 
drawn. Where the tests have been conducted longest 
the actual differences in yield are not very pronounced. 
The results shown in the following table were secured by 
planting the same bulked seed of the different strains re- 
ported upon : — 



ALFALFA 



319 



Table shows Yields of Hay in Pounds an Acre of Sev- 
eral Regional Strains of Alfalfa grown at Various 
Experiment Stations 



Source of Seed 



Canada .... 

Utah (irrigated) . 

Utah (non-irrigated) 

Nebraska 

Montana 

Ohio . . 

Kansas . 

Texas 

New York 

Colorado 

Grimm . 

Turkestan 

Sand lucern 

France . 



< S 

< ft* • 
S X f* 

gw<3 



8,709 



943 
473 

2941 
108 



,5892 
,8251 
,2332 
,5823 



£ ^' b.' 

^4< 



11,060 
12.315 



9,620 

10,286 

9,8953 



w > 

o 



6,800 
5,400 
8,300 
6,733 

5,400 
7,8001 
7,800 
6,000 

6,500 

6,800 



0- « 

X>H 

Ho, 



5,050 



5,100 



7,806 
5,6953 
5,150 



5 > 



2,988 
3,160 
2,9511 

2,547 
3,045 
3,008 



q 

Q 



1,085 



874 



1,121 
2,1502 
1,6463 
1,8493 



ca . 



9,980 

9,820 

11,8201 

11,500 

11,260 
11,000 

11,040 

10,500 

10,140 



O 



2,405 
1,400 



960 
2,0732 



381. Important characteristics of alfalfa. — Alfalfa owes 
its high importance as a forage crop to a combination of 
characteristics, as follows : — 

(1) its high nutritive value and palatability ; 

(2) its large total yield where successful ; 

(3) its drought resistance, due largely to its very deep 
roots ; 

and (4) its long life. 

Such a combination of desirable qualities has led to a 
vast amount of experimental investigations with alfalfa, 
perhaps more in the aggregate than has been devoted to 
any other forage plant. 

1 Average for seed from 2 sections of the state. 

2 Average for seed from 4 sources. 

3 Average for seed from 2 sources. 



320 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

382. Life period. — The life period of the alfalfa plant 
varies according to conditions and variety. In the semi- 
arid regions of America, authenticated cases of fields 
twenty-five years old are recorded, and much longer ages 
are asserted. In the more humid East, fields rarely per- 
sist more than five years, largely owing to the ingress of 
weeds. 

In Europe fields under ordinary conditions are reputed 
to last four to six years ; under favorable conditions, nine 
to twelve years ; and in exceptional cases, fifteen to 
twenty years, or very rarely thirty years. 

Arabian alfalfa is a short-hved variety, few individuals 
persisting as much as four or five years even under favor- 
able conditions. 

Yellow or sickle alfalfa lives, according to Werner, 
six or eight years. 

Variegated alfalfa is perhaps as long-lived as ordinary 
alfalfa, but records are lacking. 

Alfalfa yields are heaviest from plots three years or 
more old, and tend to decline by the seventh year. Crud 
in France secured the heaviest yields in the third and 
fourth years followed by a gradual decline to the seventh 
year. Walz in Germany obtained maximum yields in 
the third, fourth, fifth and sixth years, a gradual dimi- 
nution of the yield following in the next three years. 

383. Roots. — The roots of alfalfa are remarkable for 
their length and the depth to which they penetrate the 
soil. Under ordinary conditions they will descend to a 
depth of 6 feet, and authentic instances are recorded 
where they have reached a depth of 15 feet. Less 
well-authenticated reports of roots 25 to 45 feet in length 
have been made, while Stebler and Schroter cite Bonnet's 
record of a tap root 66 feet long. In ordinary alfalfa the 



ALFALFA 321 

root maintains its tap character, the branches being usually 
much smaller than the main root which may become one 
inch in diameter, but rarely exceeds half this thickness. 
The crown which is just beneath the surface of the soil, 
becomes much branched and in old plants may give rise 
to as many as 100 ascending leafy branches. True rhi- 
zomes rarely occur in common alfalfa, though the crown 
may become branched 2 or 3 inches below the surface. 

The root system of yellow or sickle alfalfa differs 
markedly from common alfalfa in producing abundant 
rhizomes. Not only this, but in some cases aerial branches 
arise directly from horizontal roots. Such roots may 
extend six feet or more, giving rise at intervals to aerial 
shoots. 

Variegated alfalfa, in accord with its hybrid origin, 
possesses roots with intermediate characters. In many 
cases the roots promptly divide into several branches, 
and rootstock development also occurs in a large propor- 
tion of the plants. On account of this root branching, 
variegated alfalfa is less subject to heaving, and the deep 
crown and rootstocks protect the plant against severe 
winter cold. 

Oliver has developed hybrids that under greenhouse 
conditions produce rootstocks luxuriantly, and suggests 
that such varieties will be especially valuable for pastur- 
age. 

Alfalfa will not thrive in water-logged soil, or, in the 
language of the farmer, will not withstand " wet feet." 
The probable reason for this is more likely due to insuffi- 
cient air than to superabundance of moisture. Alfalfa 
will rarely succeed unless the water table is more than a 
foot from the surface. 

On account of the deep roots, a friable subsoil is best 



322 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

suited to alfalfa, though fair success can be secured where 
an impermeable layer occurs a foot or so beneath the sur- 
face. While alfalfa roots will penetrate a firm subsoil, 
they apparently possess no greater ability in this respect 
than most trees and shrubs. 

The growth of the root on young plants is very rapid. 
Hays at the Minnesota Experiment Station found them 
to be 3 feet long in plants when 2 months old, and 
6| feet when 3 months old. Headden in Colorado 
reports roots 9 feet long on plants 9 months old. 

Alfalfa roots have sometimes been reported as being 
destructive to drain tiling. Cook in Ohio records a case 
where the roots in a field seven years old had filled up 
thirty-two feet of three-inch drain tile placed three feet 
beneath the surface. It is very doubtful, however, 
whether alfalfa left only three years will in any way affect 
the tiles. 

384. Relations to soil moisture. — Alfalfa roots will 
penetrate but a few inches deeper than the permanent 
water table. Further downward growth is probably 
mainly due to lack of air. It is on account of this moisture 
relation that alfalfa should be planted only on deep, well- 
drained soil, as other crops thrive better where the water 
table is shallow. 

According to Fortier, alfalfa on irrigated land does not 
do well after the third year. He thinks this is due to the 
fact that the water table is kept too high during the spring 
and summer. 

Alfalfa does not endure being covered by flood waters. 
During the growing season it may be destroyed if covered 
by water for twenty-four hours. When dormant, how- 
ever, it will withstand a similar flooding for a week or 
more. 



ALFALFA 323 

385. Seedlings. — Alfalfa seedlings are poorly adapted 
to cope with ordinary weeds because the initial growth is 
largely centered in root production. No exact study seems 
to have been made of the relative rate of growth in seed- 
lings of roots and shoots. Porter at the Minnesota Experi- 
ment Station records that plants two months old had roots 
3 feet long and tops 10 inches high ; at five months the 
roots were 6J feet long and the tops 16 inches high. 

386. Rootstocks. — Common alfalfa rarely shows any 
trace of rootstocks. These are, however, well developed 
in some forms of sickle alfalfa, and remarkably so in 
Medicago saliva Gaetula from Tunis, in which they may 
reach a length of 3| feet. They also appear commonly 
in the variegated hybrid alfalfas, and less so in Turkestan 
and Mongolian alfalfas, but appear to be absent in the 
Peruvian and Arabian forms. 

Oliver has bred some hybrids remarkable for the extent 
to which they develop rootstocks, at least under green- 
house conditions. Some of the hybrids form a dense 
matted growth, a single plant covering a surface of several 
square feet, and presenting much the general appearance 
of white clover. The value of these for pasturage purposes 
is suggested. 

Oakley has recently described some extraordinary 
examples of sickle alfalfa. These produce horizontal 
roots two to four feet long, which at intervals give rise 
to erect leafy shoots. These shoots may grow from as 
great a depth as twelve inches, and commonly arise from 
nodular swellings on the roots. 

The development of rootstocks is greater when plants 
are grown isolated than when sown thickly. It seems 
also to be encouraged by partly covering the plants with 
soil. True rootstocks on alfalfa were first noted on 



324 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

variegated alfalfa in England in 1791 by Le Blanc, who 
states that he preferred this variety because of its greater 
ability to withstand cold and also to resist choking by 
grasses. 

Under Colorado conditions, Blinn found that Arabian 
and North African strains of alfalfa, when planted in hills, 
suffered a loss of over one-half from winter-killing. Under 
the same conditions, strains from Mexico, Spain and 
South America also showed considerable loss, while 
Turkestan and Grimm alfalfa plants all survived. In 
connection with the last two varieties, the production of 
rootstocks is noted, and Blinn believes that winter hardi- 
ness is largely associated with this habit. 

387. Shoots. — A well-developed alfalfa plant has 
from 20 to 50 erect or suberect leafy branched shoots, 
which usually grow to a height varying from 18 to 36 
inches. The form of the leaflets, as well as the degree of 
leafiness, vary considerably. In different varieties the 
stem varies from very hairy to nearly smooth. It may 
be either green or purplish. 

Under its natural conditions of environment — namely, 
a dry summer season — alfalfa produces but a single 
crop of stems, these drying as the seeds ripen. In a humid 
climate, however, a new crop of shoots begins to develop 
about the time the plant reaches full bloom, and this 
militates strongly against seed-production. In arid cli- 
mates where irrigation is practiced, the development of 
the new shoots can be controlled by supplying or with- 
holding water. 

There seems to be no limit to the number of crops of 
shoots an alfalfa plant will produce under favorable con- 
ditions. Only when an unfavorable condition of cold or 
drought intervenes does growth cease. 



ALFALFA 325 

Yellow or sickle alfalfa differs markedly from true 
alfalfa, in that the shoots are usually procumbent or pros- 
trate, and a second crop is but rarely produced, correlated 
probably with the production of rootstocks. 

Variegated alfalfa, at least in its commercial forms, 
behaves much like ordinary alfalfa, but the shoots are 
not so erect. In Germany, according to Werner, the 
new growth after cutting is less prompt than in common 
alfalfa, and the yield less. 

Dillman found at Bellefourche, South Dakota, that a 
well-grown plant of alfalfa will produce in the first cutting 
134 to 192 grams of hay. 

388. Relative proportion of leaves, stems and roots. — 
Headden in Colorado has estimated the ratio of roots 
to tops to be as 1 : 1.3, based on the weights obtained from 
thirty-two plants. At the Delaware Experiment Station 
the roots and tops in one acre were determined respectively 
as 1980 and 2267 pounds. Ritthausen in Europe found 
the average percentage weight of leaves to stems in alfalfa 
hay to be 48 to 52. Cottrell in Kansas found an average 
relation of 45 parts leaves to 55 of stems. In very leafy 
plants, the proportion was 49 to 51 ; and in very stemmy 
individuals, 41 to 59. 

The subject has been further studied at the Utah Ex- 
periment Station by Widtsoe, who determined the rela- 
tive percentage of leaves, stems and flowers at nearly 
every stage of growth for the first, second and third 
cuttings. In the following table are shown the data 
obtained from the first and second cuttings made when 
the plants were in bloom. It will be noted that the 
percentage of leaves decreases as the plants grow 
older, and that the second crop is less stemmy than the 
first : — 



326 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



Table showing Percentage of Leaves, Stems and Flow- 
ers IN Dry Alfalfa harvested at Different Stages. 
Utah Experiment Station 



First Crop 


Second Crop 


Date 

of 

Cutting 


Condition 
of the 
Crop 


% of 
Leaves 


% of 
Stems 


% of 
Flow- 
ers 


Date 

of 

Cutting 


%of 
Leaves 


%of 
Stems 


%of 
Flow- 
ers 


June 22 


Early 
bloona 


38.4 


58.8 


2.8 


July 14 


43.7 


54.6 


1.7 


June 29 


Medium 
bloom 


35.2 


59.4 


5.4 


July 20 


42.4 


50.8 


6.8 


July 7 


Full flower 


33.9 


59.8 


6.3 


July 27 


36.8 


55.6 


7.6 


July 20 


Full flower 


25.3 


67.4 


7.3 


Aug. 3 


35.1 


51.6 


13.3 


July 27 


Late bloom 


22.7 


67.3 


10.0 











389. Seed-bed. — Young alfalfa plants are but poorly 
adapted to compete with weeds, largely from the fact 
that the early growth is devoted mainly to root extension. 
On this account, a seed-bed as free as possible from weeds 
is important, and it is also desirable that it be well settled 
and moist. Such a seed-bed is best secured by fallowing 
the land for six weeks or more before sowing. Or, where 
the alfalfa is sown in the late summer or early fall, a clean 
hoed crop, such as potatoes or tomatoes, may in some 
states be harvested by the middle of August and leave the 
land in excellent shape for alfalfa. 

On land that is likely to drift, special care is necessary 
to secure a stand of alfalfa. In such cases, nurse-crops 
are seldom practicable on account of insufficient moisture. 
Drifting, however, may be prevented by scattering straw 
or coarse manure over the field, or the alfalfa may be sown 
in the old stubble of corn or sorghum. 

390. Inoculation. — Alfalfa will rarely grow to maturity 



ALFALFA 327 

unless the roots become noduled. Without the nodules 
the young plants grow but three to six inches high, grad- 
ually turn yellow and die. Natural inoculation is rare 
except in regions where alfalfa is grown extensively or 
where a few closely related plants have been growing, 
including melilotus, bur clover and yellow trefoil. The 
fact that the nodule germs of melilotus will inoculate al- 
falfa was first proven by Hopkins. There is no positive 
proof in the cases of bur clover and yellow trefoil, but field 
observations leave little doubt as to their efficacy. 

The nodules of alfalfa are small, club-shaped when 
simple, but often branched to resemble fingers. Rarely 
there are enough branches to form a globose mass. These 
nodules are all on the smaller roots, and are nearly always 
stripped off when a plant is pulled out of the ground. 

391. Rate of seeding. — One pound of common alfalfa 
contains about 220,000 seeds. Therefore, each pound of 
alfalfa seed, if evenly sown on an acre of 43,560 square 
feet, would average over five seeds to the square foot. 
Alfalfa fields one year old rarely contain more than twenty 
plants to the square foot and older fields usually have 
less than ten. In the United States, the usual rate of 
seeding alfalfa to the acre is twenty pounds in the West 
and twenty-five to thirty pounds in the East. In Europe, 
the rate is variously given as twenty-five to thirty-five 
pounds to the acre. Fair stands of alfalfa have been 
secured in the West with one pound of seed to the acre, 
and good stands are not rarely obtained with five pounds 
an acre. 

Westgate, on the basis of thorough inquiry into the 
practice of the best growers, recommends twenty-four 
to twenty-eight pounds an acre for the Atlantic and 
Southern States ; twenty to twenty-four pounds for the 



328 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

region between the meridian of 98° and the Appalachian 
Mountains ; five to fifteen pounds on unirrigated, semi-arid 
lands, depending on the amount of rainfall ; fifteen pounds 
on irrigated lands. 

Provided a good stand is secured, a low rate of seeding 
is just as satisfactory as a high rate. At Lethb ridge. 
Alberta, alfalfa was seeded at the following rates on irri- 
gated land : 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 pounds an acre. The 
average yields for 3 years were, respectively, 10,273, 11,333, 
11,426, 11,220, 10,875 and 11,394 pounds an acre. 

392. Time of seeding. — Alfalfa is sown either in the 
spring or in late summer or early fall, depending on cli- 
matic and other conditions. In the irrigated lands of the 
West, spring seeding is most frequently practiced, but fall 
seeding is just as successful. On unirrigated lands in the 
West, the time is usually determined by the moisture 
conditions of the soil. In the Great Plains region, this 
is usually best in spring, while in the intermountain 
region, spring seeding on fallow land is a common practice. 
In states with very cold winters spring or early summer 
seeding is necessary, as fall-sown stands are likely to be 
winter-killed. Where the winters are not severe, and mois- 
ture conditions permit, late summer or early fall sowing 
is preferable. The sowing should be early enough to 
permit the alfalfa plants to become well rooted by winter ; 
otherwise, serious losses may result from heaving; and 
late enough so that summer weeds — especially, crab- 
grass and pigeon-grass — will not seriously affect the 
stand. In the Northern States, winter-killing is the most 
serious difficulty in securing a stand of alfalfa, while south- 
ward, weeds become the principal factor. From an 
economic standpoint, fall sowing in the East is also prefer- 
able, as a good crop is secured the next season, while with 



ALFALFA 329 

spring sowing, very little alfalfa can be harvested the 
same season. 

393. Method of seeding. — Alfalfa seeds germinate satis- 
factorily from all depths up to two inches under satis- 
factory conditions of moisture. At a greater depth all 
of the seedhngs will not reach the surface. In field prac- 
tice, the aim is to sow the seed from one-half to one inch 
deep in ordinary soils, but under droughty conditions or 
in sandy soils one and one-half inches is safer. 

The seed is variously sown by hand or by using dif- 
ferent types of seeders. A grain drill is the most economical 
implement to use where the planting is extensive. In 
this case the amount of seed sown may be regulated by 
the use of leather thongs to reduce the feed, or by mixing 
the seed with bran or other inert substance. 

394. Nurse-crops. — The use of a nurse-crop for alfalfa 
is to be recommended only in regions or on soils where but 
little difficulty is experienced in securing a stand. It is 
doubtful whether a nurse-crop is ever beneficial to the 
alfalfa, but on the irrigated lands of the West, alfalfa may 
be sown with a nurse-crop, and a good stand usually 
secured. Spring-sown barley is used most often, as the 
nurse ; oats less frequently. Barley draws less heavily 
on the soil moisture. 

In the humid parts of the United States, occasional 
examples are found where success has been obtained by 
sowing alfalfa with spring oats or barley. This, how- 
ever, involves sowing the alfalfa seed early in spring, an 
unfavorable time on account of weeds, besides increasing 
the chance of failure from drought. Seeding in fall with 
winter wheat, oats or rye postpones the sowing beyond 
the most favorable time to insure ample growth of the 
alfalfa before winter. In view of the care usually neces- 



330 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

sary to secure a stand of alfalfa in humid regions, the use 
of a nurse-crop under such conditions is inadvisable as a 
rule. 

When, however, experience has shown that all the 
soil conditions are favorable, spring seeding with a nurse- 
crop gives good results. This is especially true in the 
northern tier of states and in Ontario. At the Ontario 
Agricultural College just as good results were secured 
with a nurse-crop of barley, seeding one bushel to the 
acre, as where no barley was used. In an experiment 
comparing wheat, barley and oats as nurse-crops, wheat 
was the best, but not much superior to barley, while oats 
was decidedly the poorest, all measured by the resulting 
yields of alfalfa for 2 years. In a few instances, success- 
ful stands of alfalfa have been secured by sowing between 
the rows of corn at the time of the last cultivation. With- 
out very favorable moisture conditions, success with such 
sowing is problematical. 

395. Clipping. — Some writers have recommended clip- 
ping young alfalfa, when three or four inches high, with 
the idea that this treatment would strengthen the sub- 
sequent growth in a manner analogous to the pruning 
of trees. The cases are, however, not comparable, inas- 
much as there is no reserve store of food in the alfalfa 
plant, as there is in the branches of trees. Chpping is 
never justifiable unless weeds threaten to smother out the 
young alfalfa. Exact data are wanting to show the effect 
of clipping on yields. In one experiment at Pullman, 
Washington, the effects of clipping could easily be observed 
for two years, the clipped plot showing weaker growth. 

At the Ohio Experiment Station, three plots of alfalfa 
were sown June 27. One of these was clipped September 9, 
when 12 to 18 inches high, and about 15 j^er cent in bloom ; 



ALFALFA 331 

the second, October 16, when the blossoms were mostly 
dried up ; the third was left uncut. In the spring the 
undipped plot started off with a noticeably stronger 
growth than the others. It produced a yield in three 
cuttings 522 pounds greater than the plot clipped Octo- 
ber 16, and 1376 pounds greater than that cHpped Sep- 
tember 9. The September clipped plot was apparently 
injured by the weed growth that took place after clipping. 

At Lyngby, Denmark, the effect of cutting spring-sown 
alfalfa the same year it was seeded was tested. It was 
found that the first season's crop plus that of the second 
season was not equal to that of the second year's crop 
alone on plots that had not been cut the first year. 

396. Winter-killing. — The injury or . destruction of 
alfalfa in winter is associated with various factors. Among 
the most important are the variety ; the actual minimum 
temperature ; the amount of snow cover ; the thickness 
of the stand ; the amount of moisture in the soil ; the 
condition of dormancy ; alternate freezing and thawing ; 
and particularly the condition of the plants at the begin- 
ning of winter. 

The most cold-resistant varieties of alfalfa are Grimm 
and strains of Turkestan and ordinary alfalfa which have 
been grown under severe winter conditions, as in Mon- 
tana and the Dakotas, for many years. In all these, 
natural selection has eliminated the non-hardy individuals. 

Injury to alfalfa by cold alone is rarely serious unless 
the temperature falls to — 20° Fahrenheit or lower. In 
North Dakota all but the most hardy varieties, when 
planted in rows and not protected by snow, showed a 
loss of 80 per cent or more in a winter where the minimum 
temperature was — 31° Fahrenheit. In broadcasted 
stands, however, the loss was much less. A thick stand 



332 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

probably provides a somewhat higher soil temperature, 
and also reduces the percentage of soil moisture. 

Alfalfa is, however, successfully grown in regions where 
a minimum of — 40° Fahrenheit, or even lower, is not 
uncommon, as in Minnesota, North Dakota and Montana. 
This is doubtless due in part to protection afforded by 
snow. 

Young alfalfa is more often winter-killed by cold than 
older plants, but there are no accurate data as to their 
relative cold endurance. It sometimes happens that 
alfalfa — especially in low spots — becomes covered for 
a considerable period by a sheeting of ice. This usually 
kills the plants. 

The degree of dormancy of the plants also affects their 
ability to resist cold. It is well known that fruit trees 
are much less likely to be injured by cold when the twigs 
have become fully hardened and dormant and remain so 
during the winter. In the irrigated regions, instances 
have occurred where a portion of the orchard was irri- 
gated late in the season so that the trees did not become 
fully dormant. These were winter-killed when adjoining 
trees of the same variety not irrigated escaped injury. 
For the same reason, warm weather in late winter which 
starts growth in the trees is likely to be disastrous if fol- 
lowed by more cold. The behavior of alfalfa seems exactly 
comparable to that of fruit trees, in that dormant plants 
are much more resistant to cold and that high soil moisture 
tends to retard dormancy. Fortier cites the experience 
of a farmer at Chateau, Montana, who irrigated late in 
the fall a portion of a field of alfalfa two years old. This 
winter-killed, while the unirrigated portion was unharmed. 

Peruvian and Arabian alfalfas are varieties which con- 
tinue to grow at temperatures lower than that which 



ALFALFA 333 

induces dormancy in most varieties. This late production 
of tender shoots is probably the principal reason why these 
varieties succumb so easily to winter cold. 

Alfalfa sometimes dies in very dry winters in Colorado 
and other western states apparently from lack of sufficient 
soil moisture. To remedy this, late fall irrigating would 
be necessary, though this involves an increased danger of 
injury by winter cold. 

Young alfalfa is most frequently injured or destroyed 
by the heaving of the soil caused by alternate freezing and 
thawing. This results in the plants being raised out of 
the ground so that the young tap root may be exposed 
to a length of 2 to 5 inches. It is partly on this account 
that fall sowings should be early, as the larger the root 
development the less apt are the plants to be heaved. 
Heaving is especially likely to occur when the soil contains 
much moisture, and for this reason is far more common in 
clayey than in sandy soils. 

Any conditions that do not permit the seedlings to 
make a good healthy growth before the beginning of 
winter, will tend to increase winter-killing. A top 
growth of 4 to 6 inches is considered good, but even 
more is desirable. 

397. Time to cut for hay. — The important factors that 
determine the best time to cut alfalfa for hay are the effect 
on the succeeding cutting, and the relation of stage of 
maturity to feeding value. Both of these considerations 
are necessarily affected by the probability of good haying 
weather, as neither a somewhat superior quality or a 
lessened succeeding cutting would compensate for a loss 
or serious injury to the crop at hand. 

The general practice in America is to cut for hay shortly 
after the first blossoms appear. After this time the stems 



334 FOBAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

become more woody, and the leaflets are more likely to 
fall off. In Europe, Stebler and Schroter recommend 
that it be cut some time before flowering. 

In humid regions, alfalfa sometimes blooms but spar- 
ingly. In such climates the best rule is to cut for hay as 
soon as new shoots appear at the crown. If cutting is 
delayed longer, the new shoots are apt to be cut off, thus 
injuring the second crop. This difficulty does not arise 
during jDeriods of drought, and in arid regions can be con- 
trolled by withholding irrigation. 

Late cuttings may also be at the expense of total yield. 
At the Utah Experiment Station, three plots of alfalfa 
during five seasons were cut respectively when the first 
blossoms appeared ; when in full bloom ; and when half 
the blossoms had fallen. The first two plots produced 
three cuttings annually, the third but two, except one 
unusually favorable season when three were harvested. 
The average acre yields for the three plots were respec- 
tively, 4553, 3554 and 1776 pounds, or a relative propor- 
tion of 100 : 78 : 39. 

At the Kansas Experiment Station, four plots of J acre 
each duplicated were cut respectively when in first bloom, 
in one-tenth bloom, in one-half bloom and in full bloom. 
The respective acre yields for the first cutting were 
1.36, 1.76, 1.81 and 2.04 tons; for the whole season, 
4.69, 5.35, 4.52 and 5.99 tons. In this case the late 
cuttings gave both the greatest yield to the cutting and 
the largest total. 

The question of the best time to cut alfalfa for hay 
has also been much studied from the viewpoint of chemical 
composition and digestibility. Thus, Willard, in Kan- 
sas, compared alfalfa hay cut at three stages — 
namely, when about 10 per cent in bloom; when about 



ALFALFA 335 

half in bloom ; and in full bloom. The first mentioned 
was found " richer in ash, protein and fat than that pro- 
duced by later cuttings, while the crude fiber and the nitro- 
gen-free extract increase in percentage as the plant 
matures." 

Harcourt, at the Ontario Agricultural College, concludes 
that '' a much larger amount of digestible matter was 
obtained by cutting when the plants were about one-third 
in bloom than by cutting either two weeks earlier or two 
weeks later." Snyder and Hummel in Minnesota state 
that " alfalfa for hay should be cut when one-third of the 
blossoms have appeared because at this stage it will yield 
the largest amounts of the several nutrients in the most 
valuable forms." Widtsoe in Utah holds " that to insure 
a large yield of dry matter and the largest amounts of 
albuminoids, lucern should be cut not earlier than the 
period of medium bloom and not much later than the 
period of first full flower. This in most cases will be two 
or three weeks after the flower buds begin to appear. It 
will be a more serious error to cut too early than to 
cut too late." Headden in Colorado concludes from 
his investigations of alfalfa " that the best general- 
purpose hay is obtained by cutting it when it is in full 
bloom." 

The object for which the hay is cut is also a factor to 
be considered. For horses it is generally held that alfalfa 
cut in full bloom is best, as earlier cuttings are too laxative. 
This conclusion is also reached by the Kansas Experiment 
Station, as the result of extensive horse feeding experi- 
ments. Horses, however, frequently eat only the alfalfa 
stems, leaving much of the leaves in the bottom of the 
manger. 

Alfalfa straw or hay from rijDe alfalfa must be fed 



336 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

very cautiously. Werner states that it is dangerous to 
feed alfalfa hay containing ripe seeds to horses, as the 
seeds are apt to cause laryngeal trouble. 

At the Ontario Agricultural College, a valuable cow 
died of stoppage of the bowels after being fed on ripened 
alfalfa. The ball of indigestible fiber found in the intestine 
was supposed to be formed from the alfalfa eaten. A sheep 
also was affected in a similar way, but recovered. 

398. Number of cuttings. — The number of times 
alfalfa can be cut for hay depends mainly on the length 
of the season ; secondly, on the moisture supply. Under 
the most favorable conditions, a cutting can be made 
every thirty days. As many as nine cuttings of ordinary 
alfalfa, and twelve of Arabian alfalfa have been secured 
in a year in the Imperial Valley, California. Over most 
of the irrigated region, from three to five cuttings are 
obtained. Without irrigation, frequently only one crop 
can be harvested in the drier states, but three cuttings 
are the rule wherever corn will mature and moisture con- 
ditions are favorable. At high altitudes in the Rocky 
Mountains where the season permits of but a single 
cutting of alfalfa, red clover is preferable, as it will make 
its growth in cooler weather. 

399. Quality of different cuttings. — The first cutting 
of alfalfa is as a rule coarser than the later cuttings, and 
in some markets this has an effect on its price. From a 
chemical. standpoint there is very little difference between 
the first and the later cuttings. 

At the Utah Experiment Station alfalfa from three 
cuttings grown on light bench lands was fed to milch 
cows to determine their relative value in the production 
of butter fat. The opinion of dairymen in Utah is that 
the second cutting of alfalfa hay is far superior to the first 



ALFALFA 337 

cutting and somewhat better than the third cutting. The 
experiments were carried on two seasons with three lots 
of 5 dairy cows each, each lot being fed for 4 weeks with 
each cutting of hay after a preliminary feeding of 25 days. 
The cows both years ate most of the third crop, followed 
in order by the first and the second crops. The total 
amounts of butter fat produced were, respectively, 707, 
687 and 675 pounds for the first, second and third cuttings 
in order. On the whole the experiment does not indi- 
cate any marked difference in feeding value of the three 
cuttings. 

400. Irrigation. — A large proportion of the alfalfa 
grown in the United States and Canada is produced under 
irrigation in the semi-arid regions. The general practice 
of growers is to use far more water than is necessary. This 
is harmful, as in time it brings about a water-logged condi- 
tion of the soil, which in itself is directly harmful to the 
alfalfa, but indirectly far more so, as it causes soluble 
alkali salts to rise and accumulate near the surface. On 
this account it is best to apply only as much water as will 
result in the production of satisfactory crops. This 
amount varies principally according to the character of 
the soil. To a less degree it is affected by the amount of 
evaporation and transpiration, these increasing with high 
temperature, dryness of the air and wind movements. 
The optimum amount of water required needs, therefore, 
to be determined in each locality by comparative plot 
trials. 

401. Time to apply irrigating water. — In irrigation 
farming, alfalfa is practically always irrigated as soon as 
each crop is removed from the field. Additional irrigations 
are required in many places, the number depending on 
both soil and climatic conditions. The best guide is to 



338 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

watch carefully the condition of the plants. When the 
water supply becomes too low, the growth is checked and 
the leaves become darker and duller in color than those 
of vigorously growing plants. The wilting of the leaves 
is also indicative of insufficient moisture, especially if it 
occur before or after the heat of midday. Fortier also 
recommends that the soil at a depth of about 6 inches be 
examined. If it will readily form a ball when pressed 
between the hands and retain its form, there is sufficient 
moisture present ; but if the ball falls apart when the 
pressure is removed, irrigation is needed. 

The number of irrigations a year when water is avail- 
able varies from 4 in Montana to as many as 12 in Ari- 
zona and California. The number depends upon various 
factors, especially the depth and character of the soil, 
the depth of the water table, number of cuttings and such 
climatic factors as temperature, rainfall, humidity and 
wind movements. 

In localities where water is abundant only in the spring 
and early summer, it is the common practice to water 
more freely and more frequently at that time, as 
this tends to lessen the amount needed later in the 
summer. 

402. Winter irrigation. — In parts of the West, where 
the water supply happens to be abundant in winter and 
scant or even lacking in summer, fields are irrigated in 
winter when the plants are dormant. This is especially 
practical in regions where the winters are mild. The prin- 
cipal object is to conserve water which would otherwise 
be wasted, the soil retaining a large amount and thus 
lessening the water required during the summer. Even 
where no water is available in summer, one good cutting 
is in many places obtained as the result of winter irriga- 



ALFALFA 



339 



tion. A second advantage is that winter-killing from exces- 
sive dryness of the soil is prevented. Where the winters 
are severe, however, too great an amount of soil moisture 
is conducive to winter-killing. 

403. Relation of yield to water supply. — The actual 
water required in irrigating alfalfa depends largely on the 
permeability of the soil, but temperature, humidity and 
wind are also factors of importance. Fortier states that 
the larger number of western alfalfa fields are irrigated 
annually with 2.5 to 4.5 feet of water, but in quite a 
large number of cases the amount used would cover the 
field in depths ranging from 6 to 15 feet. 

While larger yields are often obtained by using greater 
quantities of water, such use is wasteful and apt to be 
injurious to the land or to surrounding lands by causing 
waterlogging and the consequent rise of alkali. 

Fortier secured the following results at the Montana 
Experiment Station : — 



Plat 


Depth of 


Depth of 


Total Depth 


Yield to the Acre 


Number 


Irrigation 


Rainfall 


of Cured Alfalfa 




Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Tons 


1 


0.5 


0.7 


1.20 


4.61 


2 


0.0 


0.7 


0.70 


1.95 


3 


1.0 


0.7 


1.70 


4.42 


4 


1.5 


0.7 


2.20 


3.75 


5 


2.0 


0.7 


2.70 


6.35 


6 


2.5 


0.7 


3.20 


7.20 


7 


3.0 


0.7 


3.70 


7.68 



The following yields are reported from the Utah Experi- 
ment Station, using different quantities of irrigation 
water : — ■ 



340 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



Inches of Water 
Applied 


10.0 


16.0 


20.0 


25.0 


30.0 


50.0 


First Crop 
Second crop . 
Third crop 


3567 
4077 
2240 


3194 
2775 
1577 


3759 
3193 
2145 


3790 
3245 
2319 


3326 
3338 
2176 


3795 
4016 
3002 


Total yield 


9884 
988 


7546 


9097 


9354 


8840 
295 


10813 


Yield for each 
inch of irri- 
gation water 


503 


455 


374 


216 



(Qnantities of water used are expressed in acre-inches, 
of alfalfa are expressed in pounds to the acre.) 



Yields 



404. Care of an alfalfa field. — After a good stand of 
alfalfa has been secured, its subsequent treatment — apart 
from harvesting, and in dry regions, irrigating — should 
be mainly to hold weeds in check. The worst weeds that 
invade alfalfa fields are blue-grass in the north, and Ber- 
muda-grass and crab-grass southward. Other weeds are 
held largely in check by the regular mowings, but the weedy 
grasses can be eradicated only by careful harrowing. 

Blue-grass and Bermuda are both perennials, and grad- 
ually kill out the alfalfa as the grass sod extends. Usually 
this requires three or four years. Crab-grass grows most 
luxuriantly in moist hot weather, under which condi- 
tions alfalfa languishes, so that crab-grass often com- 
pletely destroys an alfalfa field in the Southern States in 
a single season. 

The best implement to destroy grass in alfalfa is the 
spike-tooth harrow, especially the form with broad chisel- 
shaped teeth. Where the ground is very hard, it is neces- 
sary first to use a disk harrow. This implement often 
splits up the crowns of the alfalfa plants, but this injury 



ALFALFA 



341 



is ordinarily not serious. It certainly is not beneficial 
as some writers have claimed. The disk harrow alone is 
not effective against blue-grass, but needs to be followed 
with the spike-tooth. 

When grass is troublesome^ it is commonly recommended 
that alfalfa should be thoroughly harrowed after each 
cutting. By this means, the life of the field may be ex- 
tended several years, at least in some localities. 




Fig. 34. — An implement for harrowing fields of alfalfa. 

At the Kansas Experiment Station a plot disked every 
year for 3 years yielded at the average rate of 9922 pounds 
an acre, while one not disked gave a yield of 10,269 
pounds. 

405. Alfalfa in cultivated rows. — Alfalfa planted in 
rows has often been grown in an experimental way in 
humid regions where broadcasting is unsuccessful on ac- 
count of weeds. Such a type of cultivation has never 
come into actual practice in such regions, mainly because 
other leguminous crops succeed in spite of weeds. 



342 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

In some semi-arid regions, notably India and Algeria, 
alfalfa for hay is grown in this manner both with and 
without irrigation. In these countries, however, labor is 
much cheaper than in America. 

Thus far the culture of alfalfa in rows in the United 
States has been mainly with the idea of producing seed 
crops. The success already attained leads to the belief 
that the method will come into wide use. The area 
particularly adapted to this method of seed-production 
is that east of the Rocky Mountains, where the annual 
rainfall lies between 14 and 25 inches, and west of the same 
mountains, where the precipitation is between 12 and 20 
inches. Such conditions supply sufficient moisture if the 
alfalfa is planted thinly in rows 30 to 40 inches apart and 
cultivated frequently. Furthermore, it is under just 
such conditions of drought that seed setting is favored. 
Irrigable lands cannot be economically utilized in this 
manner, as they will produce 3 to 5 cuttings of hay from 
broadcasted alfalfa, while the unirrigable lands rarely 
produce more than one such cutting. 

Fairchild has described an interesting method of alfalfa 
culture in Algeria, where the alfalfa is grown in double 
rows 40 inches apart, and every second year a crop of 
durum wheat is grown between the rows. 

406. Alfalfa in mixtures. — Alfalfa is not commonly 
employed in grass mixtures, mainly because the especial 
pecuharity of the crop — namely, its ability to produce 
two or more cuttings — is thereby impaired. 

In humid regions, alfalfa as a rule does not withstand 
the crowding of other grasses such as are usually employed 
in mixtures. It is not so well adapted for this purpose as 
is red clover. 

In irrigated regions, especially at high altitudes, where 



ALFALFA 343 

timothy is an important crop, the practice of growing it 
in mixture with alfalfa is increasing. This permits, in 
many places, the cutting of a second crop of hay, which 
is largely composed of alfalfa. Alfalfa as ordinarily cut 
is ready two weeks sooner than timothy, but additional 
maturity makes it better feed for horses. Furthermore, 
experience has shown that when mixed with timothy, 
the stems are more slender, and there is no objectionable 
woodiness. 

407. Alfalfa in rotations. — On account of its long life, 
as well as the value of an established field, alfalfa is not 
much used in regular rotations. The almost universal 
custom is to retain a field in alfalfa as long as it continues 
to produce satisfactory crops. In Colorado, however, 
alfalfa is used in rotation with potatoes, the alfalfa com- 
monly being sown with a nurse-crop of oats and usually 
allowed to stand two seasons. 

In Europe the idea prevails that land should not again 
be sown to alfalfa until after a period of rest equal to the 
time the land was in alfalfa, or somewhat less if there is 
a deep and good subsoil. American experience has not 
as yet disclosed any need of such practice. It is, how- 
ever, desirable, after a field of alfalfa has been plowed, 
to follow it with one intertilled crop and one of small 
grains, as this permits the land to be cleaned of weeds, 
and also secures the benefit of the fertilizing value of the 
alfalfa. 

If alfalfa is again to be sown on the land, the interven- 
ing crops should be planned to permit alfalfa being sown 
at the best time. On farms where experience has shown 
that alfalfa can be successfully grown, it is most economi- 
cally seeded after a cultivated crop that can be removed 
in time enough to sow the alfalfa. Among such crops 



344 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

are potatoes and sweet corn. Certain broadcasted crops 
will also leave the land in. good shape for alfalfa, among 
them field peas and cowpeas. 

408. Pasturing alfalfa. — Alfalfa may be pastured to 
all kinds of live stock, but this is rarely done in regions 
where the hay commands a good price, excepting when the 
field has become weedy. In the eastern United States 
pasturing will nearly always result in great injury to the 
stand of alfalfa, but in the West this difficulty is not so 
serious. It is best not to pasture alfalfa during the first 
two seasons, and even old fields cannot be pastured heavily 
without injuring the stand. 

Hogs are most often employed in pasturing alfalfa and 
injure it less than other live stock. Where, however, the 
soil is loose, it is well to ring their noses to prevent rooting. 
Horses and sheep are most injurious to alfalfa plants, as 
they eat the young buds from the crowns. Both sheep 
and cattle are likely to become affected with bloat or 
hoven when upon alfalfa pasture. This danger is appar- 
ently lessened by not allowing the animals to go on the 
pasture when the alfalfa is wet with rain or clew. Neither 
should hungry cattle be turned in alfalfa so that they will 
gorge themselves, as this is particularly likely to cause 
bloat. The danger is always present, however, and so 
large that cautious farmers do not consider alfalfa a proper 
plant for pasturing valuable animals. 

Fields of mixed alfalfa and grass are much better for 
pasturing cattle and sheep than alfalfa alone, as such a 
mixture is much less likely to cause bloating. Orchard- 
grass is well adapted to such a mixture in the more humid 
states ; and brome-grass in the region west of the longitude 
96° and north of the latitude 37°. Kentucky blue-grass 
should not be sown, as it tends to crowd out the alfalfa. 



ALFALFA 345 

Eventually it invades many fields, and when this is the case 
the mixture makes fine pasturage. 

Few data are available as to the carrying capacity of 
alfalfa pastures. In good alfalfa sections, a field will sup- 
port an average of ten hogs to the acre throughout the 
grazing season. Fields should never be closely pastured 
to the end of the season, but the animals should be removed 
in time to allow a growth of 6 inches or more before the 
beginning of winter. 

409. Use as a soiling crop. — Alfalfa is an excellent 
soiling crop, especially for dairy cows. Only one precau- 
tion needs to be taken ; namely, not to cut the same field 
more often than it would be cut for hay, as otherwise the 
plants are greatly weakened and often succumb. Such 
an injurious result is not uncommonly seen in alfalfa near 
dairy barns, which, on account of its convenience, has 
been cut too frequently. No cases are on record of cut 
alfalfa ever having caused bloating. 

410. Alfalfa silage. — Alfalfa alone has not given 
very satisfactory results as silage in the few tests re- 
ported. This method of preservation is rarely necessary 
in the West, where most of the alfalfa is grown. In the 
East, however, ensiling the crop would be a means of 
saving it during weather unfavorable for hay curing. 
One difficulty encountered in making good silage from 
alfalfa is to secure sufficiently dense packing to prevent 
spoiling. Chopping the alfalfa reduces the loss from 
this cause. Much additional investigation regarding 
the preservation of alfalfa as silage is needed. 

At the Utah Experiment Station there was placed in 
one silo 14,165 pounds red clover, 4020 pounds sweet 
clover, 8620 pounds alfalfa and 3720 pounds Hungarian 
millet, a total of 30,525 pounds. The total silage taken 



346 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

out was 19,599 pounds, a loss of 35.7 per cent, and besides 
7007 pounds were spoiled. Neither the cut nor the whole 
alfalfa silage proved satisfactory in two years' trial. 

411. Alfalfa meal. — In recent years, finely ground 
alfalfa has been placed on the market under the name of 
alfalfa meal. The best quality of meal is bright pea green 
in color, as this indicates that it has been made from the 
best quality of hay. The product is very convenient to 
use in mixed feeds, as there is practically no waste such 
as occurs with hay. It usually commands a price about 
25 per cent higher than prime alfalfa hay. 

The ground material contains no more nutriment than 
hay of the same quality, and its digestibility is probably 
not increased materially. The justification for its use lies 
in the convenience in feeding, and the avoidance of waste. 

412. Seed production. — Alfalfa seed is rarely grown 
commercially except in semi-arid regions. In humid 
regions, the production of seed is small except in seasons 
when drought prevails. At the present time, about one- 
half of the commercial seed is grown on irrigated lands in 
regions of dry summers. Moisture from rain or irriga- 
tion after the alfalfa plants are in bloom will stimulate 
new growth from the crown, which greatly reduces the 
seed yield. When a seed crop is desired, irrigation is 
withheld until the seed has been harvested. Usually the 
second crop of alfalfa is allowed to produce seed, but in 
the northernmost states of the West, it is necessarily the 
first crop, as the second will not mature, and in the South- 
western States the third crop is often preferred for seed. 

Various factors affect the amount of seed that alfalfa 
plants produce. The most important are the thickness 
of stand, moisture supply, and conditions favorable for 
tripping. 



ALFALFA 



347 



Isolated plants of alfalfa produce most seed. West- 
gate compared isolated plants vegetatively propagated 
from the same mother plant. The plants that were 
farthest apart — namely, 18 by 39 inches — produced 
as many as 505 pods each, while those closest together 
— namely, 7 inches each way — produced a maximum 
of but 38 pods. The beneficial effect of isolation seems 
partly due to the increased sunlight 
received, as shaded plants produce but 
few pods. It is possible, too, that the 
heat of the sun favors tripping, as flowers 
can be tripped with a burning glass or 
by shading under a cage and then ex- 
posing to the hot sunshine. 

Abundant moisture lessens seed pro- 
duction, apparently mainly because it 
stimulates the growth of new sprouts. 
Too little moisture may also seriously 
reduce the seed yield, but alfalfa with 
its deep root system is not frequently 
subjected to this extreme. The subject 
is a difficult one for field experimenta- 
tion, but needs much further study. 

Tripping of the flowers (Par. 413) is doubtless an impor- 
tant factor, but more data and observations are needed, es- 
pecially with reference to the relation of climatic factors 
to tripping. The relative importance of automatic 
tripping and insect tripping remains to be ascertained, 
but observations indicate that in some localities when 
tripping insects are rare, automatic tripping is probably 
the determining factor. 

In all producing sections, the yield of seed varies 
greatly from season to season, but the factors actually 




Fig. 35. — A well- 
set cluster of alfalfa 
pods. 



848 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

involved are obscure. Maximum yields of 20 bushels 
to the acre have been reported, but 8 bushels is considered 
a large yield. Returns of from 2 to 5 bushels an acre 
represent the usual crop. In Europe the yield to the 
acre ranges from 300 to 700 pounds, according to different 
authorities. 

In recent years, an increasing amount of alfalfa seed 
has been grown on unirrigated semi-arid lands. Such 
seed is considered preferable for dry land farming, and 
this is probably so, but there is no convincing experimental 
evidence of such superiority. In growing alfalfa for seed 
production on dry land, very thin stands are best, but 
there is an increasing tendency to plant it in rows about 
three feet wide with the plants about one foot apart in 
the rows. This permits of cultivation as frequently as 
may be desired. 

The crop, if harvested for seed, should be cut as soon 
as most of the pods are ripe and the seeds yellow and 
hardened. 

413. Pollination. — The structure of the alfalfa flower 
has a pecuhar explosive mechanism which especially 
adapts it to being cross-pollinated by large bees, especially 
bumble bees. The filaments of the upper stamens form- 
ing the stamineal tube are under tension, but are held in 
a straight position in the keel by means of processes on 
the wings. The insertion of a toothpick into the nectary 
or the pressing downward of the keel will release these 
processes, when the stamineal column with the inclosed 
pistil recurves, violently striking the standard. This 
process is called " tripping." When a bee trips a flower, 
the pollen is scattered on its under side. If it then visits 
and trips another flower, it is quite likely to dust pollen 
from the first on the stigma of the second. 



ALFALFA 



349 



Numerous investigators have studied the process and 
have experimented in various ways with the flowers. 
These researches have shown that only in very rare cases 
will an alfalfa flower set seed without being tripped ; 
that self-tripping takes place under certain conditions ; 
that artificial tripping with self-pollination is hardly 
as efficacious as cross-pollination; that honey-bees are 
usually unable to trip the flowers, bumble bees and other 
large bees being the most efficient insects. Burkill's 
contention that the stigma must be ruptured or irritated 
by striking the standard or an insect does not hold true 
under American conditions. Cross-pollination results in 
the production of about 30 per cent more seeds to the 
pod than does self-pollination. It has not been definitely 
shown, however, that cross-pollinated seeds possess any 
superiority. 

Under Western conditions, it is probable that more 
flowers are self-tripped than are tripped by insects, but 
more quantitative data on this point are needed. 

414. Seeds.— Alfalfa 
seed may be adulterated 
with that of trefoil, sweet 
clover or bur clover. All 
of these resemble alfalfa 
seeds closely. The sweet 
clover can be detected 
easily by crushing a few 
seeds when the character- 
istic vanilla-like odor of 
the sweet clover will re- 
veal its presence. A very 

small amount of sweet clover seed, up to 5 per cent, 
is sometimes present in American seed as an impurity, 




Fig. 36. — Alfalfa seeds : a, indi- 
vidual seeds, showing variation in 
form ; b, edge view of a seed, show- 
ing the scar ; c, natural size of seeds. 



350 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

but more than this is certainly an adulteration. To 
detect trefoil and bur clover seeds, careful examination 
is necessary. Very commonly both of these are added as 
adulterants, especially to European seed. Old alfalfa seed, 
as well as shriveled seed, has a dull reddish brown color. 

Troublesome weeds that may be present in alfalfa are 
Canada thistle, dodder, curled dock, quack-grass, wild 
carrot and oxeye-daisy. 

Good commercial seed may attain a purity of 98-99 
per cent and a viability of 97-99 per cent. A bushel weighs 
from 60 to 63 pounds. One pound contains 182,000 to 
237,000 seeds, an average of about 220,000. Usually a 
small per cent of the seed is hard, especially if the seed is 
new. Good seeds germinate within 6 days and mostly 
in 2 or 3 days. 

415. Viability of seed. — Alfalfa seed retains its via- 
bility for many years, depending partly on the conditions 
of storage. Seed of the season does not germinate as well 
as that one year old. 

The best alfalfa seed is characterized by its plumpness 
and a decidedly yellowish color. Dead seeds become 
reddish brown and are easily distinguished. Turkestan 
alfalfa seed is trampled out by animals, and may often be 
recognized by its dusty appearance and the presence of 
small pebbles. 

In all alfalfa seed a varying percentage is " hard " ; 
that is, does not absorb water and germinate promptly. 
There are no published data regarding the behavior of 
hard seeds in the soil, but the probability is that some of 
them remain dormant a long time and hence are practically 
worthless. 

At the Colorado Experiment Station samples preserved 
in envelopes and vials for six years showed a range of ger- 



ALFALFA 351 

mination of 66 to 92 per cent, and six years later the same 
samples, then twelve years old, still germinated 63 to 92.5 
per cent. One sample germinated 72 per cent when ten 
years old and 63 per cent six years later. 

Experiments in Austria showed a gradual decrease in 
germination from 94 per cent the first year to 54 per cent 
the eleventh year. Shriveled seed is inferior to plump 
seed, both in percentage of viability and in keeping qual- 
ities. It is probable, also, that the resultant plants are 
less vigorous. 

416. Alfalfa improvement. — The wide diversity which 
exists both in wild and cultivated alfalfas has in recent 
years stimulated much interest in breeding to secure 
varieties especially adapted to certain purposes and to 
special localities. Among the improvements sought by 
various investigators along this line, the following may be 
enumerated : — 

1. A higher degree of leafiness combined with erect 
stems, so as to produce more and better hay ; 

2. Better seed production, especially if combined with 
good hay quality ; 

3. Greater drought resistance ; 

4. Greater cold resistance ; 

5. Varieties that possess ability to produce seed under 
humid conditions, so that adapted strains may gradually 
be developed ; 

6. Better pasture varieties, especially such as have root- 
stocks so as to withstand pasturing without injury; 

7. Disease resistance. 

The characters enumerated are all possessed in vary- 
ing degrees by different varieties. Especially promising 
for the breeder are hybrids between sickle alfalfa and true 
alfalfa, of both of which numerous forms exist. The 



352 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

greater hardiness and rootstock-producing tendency of 
the former, combined with the better seed-production and 
superior habit of the latter, are characters highly desirable 
to combine. 

While breeders have already developed various promis- 
ing improved alfalfas, none of these has yet become estab- 
lished commercially. 

417. Breeding methods. — In connection with the 
improvement of alfalfa by breeding, certain special 
methods will be found useful. Due to the readiness with 
which natural crossing takes place, a large proportion of 
alfalfa plants are heterozygote ; that is, do not breed 
true even when the seed is produced by bagged or caged 
flowers. On this account a progeny row of each selected 
plant should be grown from seed produced under bag to 
determine whether it will breed true to type. 

For the rapid multiplication of a selected plant, two 
methods may be used : First, new plants can readily be 
produced either from cuttings, or, where rootstocks are 
present, by division ; second, pure seed can be secured 
by growing the plants in cages to exclude insects, and 
tripping the flowers by pressure of the hand. 

Increase plots of a selected strain must be grown at a 
considerable distance from any other alfalfa, otherwise 
crossing will be effected by bees. 

418. Weeds. — In many places weeds constitute a 
serious drawback to alfalfa culture. 

Kentucky blue-grass is probably most troublesome to 
established fields in Ontario and the Eastern States. Heavy 
liming so necessary for alfalfa also favors blue-grass, which 
usually appears by the second year, and unless restrained 
will kill out half of the alfalfa by the third or fourth year. 
In the northern part of the irrigated regions, blue-grass 



ALFALFA 353 

is also beginning to be troublesome in alfalfa. Blue-grass 
is best eradicated by means of a spring tooth harrow, 
especially one with broad pointed teeth. Care must be 
taken to subdue the blue-grass as soon as it begins to 
appear. The disk harrow is also commonly used, but 
this does not destroy the blue-grass as well as the spring 
tooth, though it may be used to precede the latter. Disk- 
ing often splits the crowns of the alfalfa plant, and the 
opinion is growing that this is injurious rather than 
beneficial, as some writers have claimed. 

Quack-grass {Agropyron repens), in Michigan, Vermont 
and other Eastern States, is a serious weed. Owing to 
its deep running rootstocks, it cannot be eradicated by 
harrowing, and thus continues to spread as long as the 
field remains in alfalfa. 

Crab-grass (Digitaria) and foxtail or pigeon-grass 
(Setaria) are the worst alfalfa weeds in the Southern 
States. The former is troublesome as far north as Kansas 
and Maryland, and the latter still farther. Both are 
annuals and reseed in spite of any practical precaution. 
The plants are rather easily destroyed by harrowing, as 
they are annuals and lack the rootstocks characteristic 
of blue-grass. Humid weather especially favors crab- 
grass, while it injures alfalfa, w^iich under such conditions 
may be smothered and practically destroyed. 

Bermuda-grass is becoming an increasing menace in 
alfalfa fields in Arizona and California. In this region, 
Bermuda-grass produces an abundance of seed which 
reaches the alfalfa fields in irrigation water. Its eradi- 
cation without plowing has not been accomplished. In 
Virginia, Bermuda-grass, even when abundant, has not 
proven to be troublesome in alfalfa. 

Squirrel-tail (Hordeum juhatum), a grass native to the 

2a 



354 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Rocky Mountain region, is a troublesome weed in Colorado, 
Utah and other states. This grass matures before alfalfa, 
and the long bearded spikelets are very injurious to live 
stock. When squirrel-tail is very abundant, the first 
crop of alfalfa is rendered practically worthless. Such 
a crop is sometimes cut while very young before the 
squirrel-tail is mature enough to be objectionable to 
animals. 

Wall-barley {Hordeum murinum) is a winter annual 
from the Mediterranean region abundant in California. 
Like squirrel-tail, it is very objectionable on account of 
its bearded glumes, but, before these are formed, provides 
good early pasturage. It is a common practice to burn 
this grass when dry. Where abundant, it may ruin the 
first crop of alfalfa. 

419. Dodder or love-vine. — This parasite or weed is 
often very injurious in alfalfa fields. Alfalfa fields usually 
become infested by sowing dodder seed mixed in with 
alfalfa. The dodder seed germinates in the ground, and 
the young plantlets quickly twine about the alfalfa seed- 
lings. Thereafter, they are parasitic on the alfalfa, ab- 
sorbing their nourishment by means of sucker-like organs 
which penetrate the host. Dodder usually appears in 
alfalfa fields in small isolated spots which rapidly grow 
larger if the weed is not destroyed. 

Four species of dodder have been found infesting alfalfa 
in the United States ; namely, Cuscuta planiflora, C. 
indecora, C. epithymum and C. arvensis. The last named 
is native to America, infesting many kinds of herbaceous 
plants, while the other three are of Old World origin. 
Cuscuta planiflora is the most abundant and most injurious 
species on alfalfa in the West. 

The best way to prevent this weed is to avoid planting 



ALFALFA 



355 



alfalfa seed containing dodder. The seeds of the latter 
can usually be detected by careful examination with a 
magnifier. In all the species the seeds are smaller than 
those of alfalfa, subglobose or somewhat angular, with a 
finely roughened, dull 
surface. The color 
may be grayish, yel- 
lowish or brownish. 

Various methods of 
destroying patches of 
dodder in alfalfa fields 
have been suggested. 
A good plan is to cut 
the affected plants 
very close to the 
ground before the 
dodder sets seed. 
Burning the infested 
spots by means of 
straw or by spraying 
with kerosene is also 
effective. 

If the whole field 
is affected, the best 
plan is to utiHze it 
as pasture, especially 
for sheep, which eat 
the alfalfa close and 
thus check the dodder. If such a field be utilized 
for hay, some of the dodder seed will ripen and the 
field tend to become more infested every year. 

When such a field is plowed up, it is best to grow other 
crops not subject to dodder, at least two years. Other- 




FiG. 37. 



Dodder or love-vine growing 
on alfalfa. 



356 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

wise, there is likelihood of the alfalfa becoming infested 
by the dodder seed in the soil. 

420. Diseases. — Alfalfa is subject to various fungous 
diseases, but it is exceptional for any of these to cause 
large damage, though the aggregate loss is considerable. 

Root-rot (Ozonium omnivorum) occurs in Texas and 
Arizona, and attacks many other plants besides alfalfa. 
It appears on the roots as orange-colored threads. The 
attacked plant nearly always dies. The fungus gradually 
spreads to surrounding plants, which, with the rotting of 
the root, wilt and then die. Rarely a plant may survive 
by sending out new roots from near the crown. The circles 
of dead plants caused by this disease are characteristic. 

Only indirect means of treatment can be used. The 
root-rot fungus thrives best in poorly ventilated soils, 
and further is not known to attack any monocotyledonous 
plant. The growing of such crops as corn, sorghum, the 
small grains and grasses, in rotation tends to free the land 
from the fungus. 

At the Ohio Experiment Station a root-rot caused by 
Fusarium roseum has been found killing young alfalfa 
seedlings. 

Bacillus kmiefaciens, the organism of crown-gall on 
fruit trees, sometimes affects alfalfa, causing small irregu- 
lar nodules on the roots and stems. Affected plants have 
been found in Kentucky, Maryland, Pennsylvania and 
Alabama. The affected plants are stunted somewhat, 
but no serious damage to fields has yet been traced to this 
organism. 

Urophlydis alfalfce is a fungus that causes wart-like 
excrescences to appear near the crown, both on the larger 
roots and on the bases of the stems. The galls are usually 
small, but may become 3 or 4 inches in diameter. This 



ALFALFA , 357 

disease was first observed in Ecuador, but has recently 
been found in Germany, England, California, Oregon 
and Arizona. 

Bacterial stem-blight of alfalfa caused by Pseiidomonas 
medicaginis has recently been described from Colorado 
and neighboring states. This disease attacks the stems 
primarily, usually causing a linear yellowish to blackish 
discoloration down one side of the stem through one or 
more internodes. Sometimes the disease extends to the 
crown, destroying the buds and eventually the plant. 
The disease is confined almost wholly to the first cutting, 
which may be seriously injured, but the subsequent cut- 
tings are almost unaffected. Few plants are killed the 
first year, but thereafter the loss is greater so that in 
three or four years the stand may be ruined. Cutting 
the stubble very short in early spring as soon as the first 
damage is over has been recommended. This will remove 
any diseased portions which may infect the new growth, 
and besides removes the weakened frost-injured shoots 
which seem particularly liable to the disease. Hardy 
varieties which escape winter injury are likely to prove 
less subject to the disease. A very similar disease also 
occurs in Virginia and Maryland. 

The leaves of alfalfa are attacked by various fungi. 
Most common is Pseudopeziza 7nedicaginis which causes 
small dark brown spots on the leaves. When very abun- 
dant, there is considerable shedding of leaflets. 

At the New Jersey Experiment Station comparative 
chemical analyses were made of healthy and diseased 
plants of the third cutting. The healthy plants showed 
10 per cent more fat, 12 per cent more protein and 18 per 
cent more fiber than the diseased, and were richer in car- 
bohydrates by 11 per cent. 



358 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Rust ( Uromyces striatus) is another common leaf 
disease recognizable by forming small spots of reddish 
spores. Macrosporiiwi sarcinceforme occurs frequently 
in the East, forming pale circular spots bearing scattered 
black spores. 

Two mildews also occur occasionally, especially in the 
shade ; namely, powdery mildew {Erysiphe trifolii) and 
downy mildew (Peronospora trifolii). 

None of these leaf diseases has as yet proven to be 
of serious consequence. 

Anthracnose {Colletotrichum trifolii) occurs on alfalfa 
in Virginia and Maryland, causing spots on both the stems 
and leaves. These are at first purplish, then brown. The 
stems are frequently girdled by the spot and then die, 
and the whole plant may succumb. 

Alfalfa " yellows " is a disease of unknown cause. It 
occurs quite commonly in Virginia and other Eastern 
States. The leaves turn gradually to an orange-yellow 
color, and the plant then ceases growth. When this 
happens, it is best to cut the crop at once, even if but a 
few inches high. It has been suggested that the disease 
is probably related to the mosaic disease of tobacco, 
known to be transmitted by a species of aphis. A species 
of leaf-hopper seems to be constantly associated with 
alfalfa yellows. 

421. Insects. — Insects have thus far not proved a 
serious menace to alfalfa culture in America, but locally 
and in occasional seasons a large amount of damage may 
be caused by grasshoppers or by caterpillars. The 
recently introduced alfalfa leaf weevil may, however, 
prove to be a serious factor to contend with. 

Grasshoppers are the most injurious insects to alfalfa 
in the West at the present time, but the area of destruction 



ALFALFA 



359 



varies from year to year, depending on the local abundance 
of the insects. The species that cause most damage are 
Melanoplus cliff erentialis and Melanoyliis bivittatus. They 
are more likely to be destructive in seasons when drought 
causes a shortage in natural food supply and in areas 
where the proportion of uncultivated land is large, as 
under these circumstances they congregate in the culti- 
vated fields. 

Two effective means 
of destroying these in- 
sects are by the use of 
the hopper-dozer and 
poisoned baits. The 
hopper-dozer is essen- 
tially a shallow pan with 
a vertical back one or 
two feet high. The pan 
contains water covered 
with a layer of kerosene. 
When this is dragged 
over the field, many of 
the insects jump directly 
into the pan or fall into 
it after striking the 
back. 

The most effective poisoned bait is the Criddle mixture 
made by mixing one pound of paris green and one pound 
of salt in one-half barrel of fresh horse manure. Grass- 
hoppers eat the bait very readily and are killed by the 
poison. Where grasshopper eggs are known to be abun- 
dant in an alfalfa field, many may be destroyed by disking 
in the fall or winter. 

The alfalfa leaf weevil (Phytonomus posticus), a native 




Fig. 38. — Adult form of the alfalfa 
weevil {Phytonomus j^osticus) : Adults 
clustering on and attacking a spray of 
alfalfa. (Slightly enlarged.) 



360 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

of Europe, appeared in Utah in 1904, and has now spread 
over a considerable portion of that state and south Idaho. 
The insect causes much damage by the larvae eating the 
leaves of the first crop of alfalfa, and incidentally, by delay- 
ing the second crop, does not allow time enough for the 
third crop to mature. 

The best method of control thus far devised is to cut 
the first crop and remove it from the field as soon as it 
shows signs of serious injury. The field should then be 
gone over with a spring tooth harrow and followed by thor- 
ough treatment with a heavy brush drag. The object 
is to destroy as many of the larvae and pupae as possible, 
partly by crushing, partly by burying in the dust, and 
partly by starving, as after thorough dragging the alfalfa 
stubble will be entirely bare of leaves. If the work has 
been well done, the second crop will be practically free 
from the weevil, and if done early enough, there will be 
ample time for the third crop to mature. 

Several caterpillars cause more or less injury at times 
to alfalfa by eating the leaves. The most important are 
Eurymus eury theme and Autographa gamma calif ornica. 
The best practical remedy, if the caterpillars are abundant, 
is to cut the alfalfa as close to the ground as possible while 
the caterpillars are young, thus starving them and protect- 
ing the succeeding crop from injury. Close pasturing is 
also a means of preventing injury, as caterpillars rarely 
become abundant in fields thus utilized. 



CHAPTER XVI 

RED CLOVER 

Red clover is the most important of all leguminous 
forage crops both on account of its high value as feed and 
from the fact that it can be so well employed in rotations. 
The last decade has witnessed a serious decline in the 
acreage grown in most of the eastern states, apparently due 
to an increasing difficulty in securing satisfactory stands. 

422. Botany of red clover. — The plant occurs naturally 
in the greater part of Europe ; in Algiers, northern Africa ; 
and is found in Asia Minor, Armenia, Turkestan, southern 
Siberia and the Himalayas. 

A large number of forms have been named by botanists, 
Ascherson and Graebner describing 30 varieties from 
middle Europe alone. 

423. Agricultural history. — Red clover was not known 
as a crop by the ancient Greeks and Romans. It was 
apparently first cultivated in Media and south of the 
Caspian Sea, in the same general region where alfalfa 
was first domesticated. In Europe its use as an agri- 
cultural plant is comparatively modern, the first mention 
of its use as feed for cows being by Albertus Magnus in 
the thirteenth century. There are definite records of 
its cultivation in Italy in 1550, in Flanders in 1566, in 
France in 1583. From Flanders it was introduced into 
England in 1645, and shortly afterwards its culture was 
described in several books. Its use in Europe became 
extensive about the end of the eighteenth century. 

361 



362 FOTtAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



It was probably introduced into the United States by 
the early Enghsh colonists, but the first pubKshed mention 
of its culture was by Jared Eliot, who wrote of its being 

grown in Massachu- 
setts in 1747. 

Its introduction into 
European agriculture 
had a profound effect 
in that clover soon 
came to be used in ro- 
tations in place of 
bare fallow. Its in- 
fluence there on agri- 
culture and civiliza- 
tion is stated by high 
authority to be greater 
than that of the 
potato, and much 
greater than tha.t of 
any other forage plant. 
Clover not only in- 
creased the abundance 
of animal feed and 
therefore of manure, 
but also helped greatly 
by adding nitrogen to 
the soil directly. 
It is now much cultivated not only in Europe and 
America, but also in Chile and New Zealand. 

424. Importance and distribution. — Red clover is by 
far the most important leguminous crop grown in America. 
The area devoted to it is about five times as great as that 
to alfalfa. More exact comparisons are not possible, 




Fig. 39. — Red clover. 



RED CLOVER 



363 



as clover is most commonly grown mixed with timothy, 
while alfalfa is mainly grown alone. 

On the accompanying map is shown the acreage of all 
clovers in the United States and Canada in 1909. It 
will be noted that the crop becomes decidedly less impor- 
tant in the Southern States. This is also true of the semi- 




FiG. 40. — Map showing acreage of red clover in the United States, 
1909, and Canada, 1910. 



arid states, except that in Colorado and Montana consid- 
erable red clover is grown in the mountain valleys at high 
altitudes. 

In Norway it is grown as far north as latitude 69.2°. 
On the south coast of Alaska it succeeds fairly well, ])ut 
it winter-kills in the interior. 

425. Soil relations. — Red clover is not a particularly 
exacting crop in regard to its soil requirements, excepting 
that it be well drained. It succeeds better as a rule in 



364 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

clayey soils than in loams, and better in loams than in 
sandy soils. Tough clays are, however, very unfavorable, 
partly on account of their undrained condition. The 
best growth is secured on fertile clayey soils rich in lime. 
A good content of humus is also favorable. Deep soils 
are especially desirable, as this enables the plant to develop 
its extensive root system which may penetrate to a depth 
of over five feet. 

Soil moisture conditions are most important for red 
clover. It will not thrive in sandy or gravelly soils that 
become droughty. It is especially intolerant of water- 
logged soil, and on this account is poorly adapted to grow- 
ing under irrigation on poorly drained lands. 

426. Climatic relations. — In a general way the climatic 
relations of red clover are shown by the map of its dis- 
tribution, in which both the regions and the extent of 
its culture are indicated. It is distinctly a crop for 
humid regions without excessive summer or winter tem- 
perature. 

No critical studies have been recorded of the cold 
resistance of red clover, but it is probably more hardy in 
this respect than alfalfa, as it endures well the winters of 
Nova Scotia, Maine and Minnesota. Seeds from north- 
ern-grown plants are preferred for regions of cold winters. 
Stebler and Schroter remark that dry cold is injurious in 
Switzerland in spring after growth has begun. 

Regarding the heat tolerance of red clover, the data are 
even less definite. In the southernmost states the crop 
succeeds pnly if planted in the fall, and all of the plants 
usually disappear by the following August. 

Humidity combined with moderate temperature is 
favorable to the plant, and dry atmospheric conditions 
are decidedly unfavorable. Combined with high temper- 



RED CLOVER 



365 



ature, humidity seems to be more injurious. Under such 
conditions, the Orel variety quickly shows signs of distress. 
427. Effect of shade. — Red clover is often planted in 
orchards as a cover crop. It does not thrive very well in 
shaded places and mostly disappears after the first season. 
Stebler and Volkart report an experiment in which a mix- 
ture containing red clover was grown on two plots, one 
of them artificially shaded. These plots were observed 
six years and the percentage of clover plants determined 
each season, with the following results : — 





1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


Not shaded 
Shaded 


38.7 
51.2 


22.3 

7.8 


4.7 
4.9 


0.2 
0.2 


0.8 
0. 


23.2 
0.1 



428. Life period. — Red clover is commonly said to be 
a short-lived perennial. As a crop it is nearly always 
treated as a biennial over the principal area of its distri- 
bution in America. In the Southern States, it is often 
grown as a winter annual, as it does not as a rule survive 
the hot summers and such weeds as crab-grass. In the 
Pacific Northwest and northern Europe, red clover fields 
often yield satisfactorily for three years. 

Individual plants of red clover may live six to nine 
years, but comparatively few live over three years. To 
some extent, the length of life period is a varietal character, 
both short- and long-lived strains being secured by selec- 
tion. Pastured plants persist a long time and probably 
much longer than when not grazed. On the other hand, 
but few plants survive after a seed crop has been harvested 
from them. 



366 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

429. Agricultural varieties. — Red clover is a very 
variable species, and in any field numerous forms may 
easily be selected. Many of these different forms are 
particularly prominent in the spring before the flower- 
ing branches appear. In speaking of varieties and strains, 
it must, therefore, be borne in mind that such are defined, 
not by the individuals being all alike, but only by possess- 
ing one or more characters in common. Two so-called 
varieties of red clover are distinguished in American 
agriculture : ordinary or medium, and mammoth or 
sapling. Other so-called varieties are usually named 
after the region in which they are produced and are better 
considered regional strains ; such as, Chilean red clover, 
French red clover, etc., though in a few cases the plants 
are readily recognizable. 

Ordinary or medium red clover, as grown in America, 
is distinguished by the fact that over most of the clover 
region it will produce both a hay crop and a seed crop the 
same season. If sown by itself, it produces satisfactory 
crops for only one season, but in grass mixtures, a good 
many of the plants live two years and some of them 
longer. Various characters to distinguish medium from 
mammoth red clover have been stated by authors, but 
none of them hold perfectly true. In the order of their 
trustworthiness, these characters may thus be contrasted : — 

Medium Red Clover Mammoth Red Clover 

Blooms two weeks earlier than Blooms with timothy. 

timothy. 

Stems hollow. Stems solid. 

Plants live two years. Plants live three years or more. 

Tap root branches little. Tap root branches much. 

Heads often in pairs. Heads seldom in pairs. 

Pedicels short, straight. Pedicels longer, bent. 



RED CLOVER 367 

Mammoth red clover is also known as sapling clover, 
bull clover, pea-vine clover, perennial clover, and in 
Europe as cow-grass. Botanically it is known as Tri- 
foliwm pratense perenne Host, but has erroneously been 
considered the same as zigzag clover (Trifolimn medium), 
which is a distinct species, only very sparingly introduced 
into America. On account of its lateness, as well as its 
longer persistence, mammoth clover is preferable for 
mixing with timothy, as the blooming time of the two 
coincide. If sown alone, the yield is somewhat greater 
than the medium, as it usually grows taller. On this 
account, it is preferable where both a hay crop and a seed 
crop cannot be secured in the same season. Mammoth 
clover is preferred to medium for poor or sandy soils, 
as it is generally believed that it produces better crops 
under such circumstances. 

The seed of mammoth clover is slightly larger than 
that of medium, but cannot be certainly distinguished. 
Genuine seed is scarce and commands a relatively high 
price. In Rhode Island, Card reports that it succeeds 
better than medium red on " acid " soils. 

Regional strains of red clover are usually named from 
the region in which they are produced. Only a few of 
them differ markedly from the ordinary American strain. 
Orel or Russian clover has nearly smooth herbage, and, 
like mammoth, does not produce a second cutting. For 
the northern tier of states and Canada, it possesses con- 
siderable promise. Under Maryland conditions it suffers 
noticeably from the summer heat. 

430. Comparison of regional strains. — Numerous com- 
parative trials of red clovers from different sources have 
been made both in Europe and in America. In Europe, 
American red clover is objected to on account of its greater 



368 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

hairiness. The opinion prevails also that the yield is 
not as a rule as satisfactory, and that the plants are more 
subject to mildew. Werner states, however, that the value 
of the American seed under German conditions is not yet 
clear, in spite of the numerous field trials. 

At the Wisconsin Experiment Station in 1901 American 
medium and mammoth both outyielded European strains 
from Hungary, England, Steirmark, Transylvania, Russia 
and Germany, though the hay of the European sorts was 
better in quality, owing to the plants being less hairy. 
In 1902 out of 16 American and European strains, the 
four highest yields were from American lots. In 1905 
out of 22 American and 2 foreign strains, the largest 
yield, 2.2 tons an acre, was from the Orel strain from 
Russia. 

At the Maine Experiment Station 29 regional strains 
of red clover were tested in 1902 on duplicate plots of one- 
eightieth acre. One plot of each was cut August 30, when 
the earliest was ready for cutting. The largest yields were 
obtained in the order given from plots -with seed from 
Minnesota, Bohemia, Indiana, Wisconsin, Brittany and 
Ohio. In the following season the order of their excel- 
lence, arranged according to the total yield from two 
cuttings, was Indiana, Bohemia I, Russia, Bohemia II, 
Illinois, Indiana, Ohio. 

A test of regional strains conducted cooperatively by 
the United States Department of Agriculture in 1905 gave 
the results shown in the accompanying table. In this 
series, Orel clover gave the highest total yield, as well as 
the highest at two of the stations. Orel clover yields, 
however, but one cutting, so the relative ranks of the 
varieties would undoubtedly be different if the total yields 
for the season were tabulated : — 



BED CLOVER 



369 



Table showing Acre Yields of the First Cutting of Differ- 
ent Regional Strains of Red Clover at Five Stations in 1905 



Source of Seed 



Commercial seed (Western 
bulk) 

Western Ohio 

Northern Indiana . . . . 

Southern Indiana . . . . 

Illinois 

Missouri 

Iowa 

Commercial seed (not inocu- 
lated) 

Commercial seed (inoculated) 

Michigan 

Nebraska 

Eastern Ohio 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Kief, Russia 

Orel, Russia 

Mogileff, Russia 

Courland 

Wisconsin 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

New York 






lb. 

5,700 
4,9S0 
4,780 
5,020 
4,990 
5,010 
3,950 



5,750 
6,040 
5,570 
3,590 
5,080 
5,540 
4.670 
5,840 
7,100 
5,750 
4,750 
4,950 
4,930 
4,400 



o 



6 D 



lb. 

4,400 
3,500 
2,510 
2,710 
3,990 
4,450 
4,130 

3,998 
4,312 
4,400 
4,500 
4,640 
3,420 
3,970 
4,080 
5,610 
4,030 
3,280 
2,970 
4,560 
1,800 
2,400 






lb. 

4,320 
4,248 
4,468 
4,800 
4,068 
4,400 
4,120 

4,420 
4,394 
4,109 
4,308 
4,800 
4,120 
3,640 
4,020 
5,320 
5,000 
3,780 
3,760 
4,460 
4,480 



< ^ 



lb. 

5,220 
4,950 
4,484 
4,860 
4,830 
5,510 
3,960 

4,680 
4,140 
3,750 
5,080 
5,370 
4,610 
5,090 
4,200 
4,062 
4,350 
4,470 
4,380 
4,300 



K y 



OO 



lb. 

3,633 
2,760 
2,960 
2,440 
2,720 
2,640 
2,320 

3,520 
3,520 
2,240 
2,720 
2,320 
2,840 
2,800 
2,800 
4,360 
4,080 
2,880 
2,960 
2,680 
2,960 
3,640 



lb. 

23,273 
20,4.38 
19,202 
19,830 
20,598 
22,010 
18,480 

22,368 
22,406 
20,069 
20,198 
22,210 
20,530 
20,170 
20,940 
26,452 
23,210 
19,160 
19,020 
20,930 



431. Time of seeding. — The time of seeding red clover 
is determined largely by its relation to other crops in the 
rotation, and by climatic conditions. In the southern- 
most clover sections, fall sowing is necessary, as few plants 
are able to survive the summer after the hay is cut. In the 
northernmost places where it succeeds, spring sowing is 
usually necessary in order to avoid serious winter-killing. 
In the region of its most extensive culture, seeding may 
be done at any time from very early spring to early fall, 

or even in midwinter on the snow or frozen ground. 
2b 



370 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

In the last-mentioned area, the seed is most commonly 
sown in spring on fall-sown grain, as the preparation of 
a special seedbed is thus rendered unnecessary. The 
actual time of thus seeding in grain is determined mainly 
by soil conditions. If the seed is broadcasted on the 
surface, the ideal soil condition is while the ground is still 
much cracked and honeycombed from alternate freezing 
and thawing in very early spring, as the seeds thus become 
covered. 

Later spring sowing on grain, even with harrowing, 
or with a seed drill, is as a rule less desirable ; the fall- 
grown grain is larger and the later started clover seed- 
lings are less well able to withstand either the shading 
of the grain, or the drought of summer. 

If sown alone, red clover may, in the region of its best 
development, be sown at any time from early spring until 
early autumn. Late fall plantings are undesirable, as the 
danger of winter injury is thereby increased. 

At the Indiana Experiment Station, red clover was 
seeded in the middle of each month from April to Sep- 
tember on well-prepared seed beds. Excellent stands were 
secured from the April, May and June seedings ; good 
stands from those of August and September ; while that 
of July was decidedly poor. 

Crozier in Michigan obtained excellent stands by seed- 
ing in February, March, April and December. Sowings 
made in July, August, September and October succumbed 
to winter. 

432. Rate of seeding. — Red clover contains about 
250,000 seeds to the pound, varying from 207,000 in Ger- 
man seed to 297,000 in American. One pound of seed to 
an acre evenly scattered would be about 6 seeds to a 
square foot. 



BED CLOVER 371 

The usual rate of seeding red clover in America is 
8 pounds to an acre. Different experiment stations rec- 
ommend the following rates for their respective states : 
Wisconsin and North Dakota, 15 pounds ; Oregon, 8 to 
10 pounds ; Louisiana and Kansas, 10 to 15 pounds. 

In Europe the rate seems to be higher. Stebler and 
Volkart recommend 17 pounds an acre in Switzerland, 
and Glaerum in Norway found the optimum rate to l)e 
25 pounds per acre. 

433. Seedlings. — The first true leaf of red clover is 
compound, but consists of only one leaflet. This, how- 
ever, is jointed on to the petiole in the same manner as 
the three leaflets of an ordinary leaf. The primary root 
is undivided and grows more rapidly than the stem. In 
contrast to the alfalfa primary root, that of red clover 
contracts as it grows older, resulting in the crown becom- 
ing deep-set. Nodules may appear on the roots by the 
time they are one w^ek old. 

434. Seeding with a nurse-crop. — Red clover is most 
frequently sown with some other crop, not because this is 
the best for the clover, but because it economizes labor. 
The seed may be sown in or with the following crops : — 

1. In winter or spring on fall-sown wheat or rye. 

2. In spring with wheat, barley or oats. 

3. In corn at the last cultivation. 

4. With rape or turnips in late summer. 

If sown in spring on fall-sown grain, the clover seed 
may be broadcasted, preferably in early spring when the 
ground is still loose from frost action ; or somewhat later in 
spring, the seed may be sown and the grain cross-harrowed. 

Shepperd in North Dakota secured the best results by 
seeding with a disk grain-drill across the rows of wheat. 
This method is increasing in favor in other states. 



372 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

In Ohio and neighboring states, Drake advocates scat- 
tering straw over fields of fall sown wheat in which it 
is planned to seed clover the following spring. A thin 
mulch of straw increases greatly the hkehhood of a good 
" catch " of clover. The effect seems due to the straw 
keeping the soil surface moist and preventing packing and 
erosion, and perhaps also by supplying humus. 

When the clover is seeded in spring with a small grain, 
barley is preferable to oats, as it does not make so dense 
a growth and thus injure the clover by shading. Where 
wheat can be planted in spring, it is preferable to either 
barley or oats. At the Minnesota Experiment Station, 
clover seeded with wheat yielded 4360 pounds an acre 
against 2360 pounds when seeded with oats. 

Seeding in corn is becoming a common practice in the 
New England States. At the Massachusetts Experiment 
Station this method was used seventeen years without 
failure. In recent years, it has been the most satisfactory 
practice in Vermont, and has given good results in Minne- 
sota. It has not been successful in Kansas. 

Good stands of clover have been obtained in Tennessee 
by sowing in tobacco at the last cultivation about the 
end of July. Red clover may be sown in cotton stubble, 
but this is rarely practicable. 

Sowing clover with two pounds of rape about the end 
of May gives good results in western Oregon. Sowing 
in July or August with turnips has proved satisfactory in 
the Eastern States. 

At the South Dakota Station, excellent results were 
secured by sowing medium clover in early spring on brome- 
grass sod after thorough disking. The clover seed was 
sown at the rate of 10 to 12 pounds an acre. In one field 
the mixture yielded 5484 pounds of hay an acre of the 



BED CLOVER 373 

mixture against 3294 for the brome alone ; in another 
9358 pounds to 2360 pounds. 

Clover is sometimes sown in wheat or rye stubble. This 
is a frequent practice in Europe, especially if the spring- 
sown seed fails to catch. The same method gives excel- 
lent results in western Oregon if seeded in early September. 

435. Seeding without a nurse-crop. — A stand of red 
clover is most likely to be secured when sown alone. 
This method is, however, seldom used unless all others 
prove unsatisfactory, as it involves special preparation 
of the land. In the South, such seeding must be in the 
fall, preferably about September 1 ; otherwise crab-grass 
and other weeds will destroy the clover. In the North, 
the seed may be sown on a well-prepared, firm seed-bed 
any time from early spring until fall. Late fall sowing 
is inadvisable, as winter-killing is likely to be excessive. 
Weeds are the principal menace to the success of spring 
seeding, but they may be controlled to some extent by 
occasionally clipping with the mower. 

436. Depth of planting. — Clover seed should be 
planted shallow to get the best results, in no case more 
than an inch in clay soils and one and one-half inches 
in sandy soils. 

At the Wisconsin Experiment Station less than one- 
half of the seeds germinated when covered with 1 inch 
of compacted garden soil, and less than one-fifth when 
covered with 2 inches. Shallow planting | to f of an inch 
in depth gave the best results and all very similar. The 
seeds planted J to f of an inch deep also germinated more 
promptly than those placed on the surface or those planted 
deeper. The longest rooted seedlings developed from the 
seeds planted J, \ and f of an inch deep. 

At the Michigan Experiment Station red clover was 



374 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

seeded at various depths. The best germination was at 
a depth of 1 inch and none grew when planted 2 inches 
deep or more. 

437. Winter-killing. — In soils composed of heavy clay 
or rich in humus, red clover is very apt to be uprooted and 
destroyed by the heaving of the soil in late winter or early 
spring. This is particularly likely to damage young 
clover seeded in the fall, but may injure that seeded the 
previous spring. A top dressing of coarse stable manure 
applied in fall will lessen greatly the liability to damage 
from this cause. If the roots be heaved out 1 inch or less, 
prompt rolling will be helpful. Very dry autumn weather 
sometimes weakens clover plants so that the winter 
mortality is increased. 

According to Werner, red clover suffers from cold in 
Germany only on wet clay, limestone and humus soils 
during January in the coldest winters. Lund found that 
at Copenhagen in a severe winter American red clover was 
much more injured than was European. 

438. Treatment of clover fields. — If clover be seeded 
in spring with a grain crop, there is usually no return the 
first season other than a little fall pasturage. Under 
very favorable conditions, however, a moderate crop of 
hay may be cut, or this may be allowed to mature for 
seed. 

If the clover be seeded alone in spring on well-prepared 
land, a good cutting of hay is as a rule secured the same 
season, and in rare cases a second crop. 

During the second season, the general practice is to cut 
the first crop for hay and the second for seed, after which 
most of the plants die. 

439. Fertilizers. — Numerous fertilizer experiments on 
clover have been reported by American experiment 



RED CLOVER 375 

stations. It is difficult, however, to generalize from them, 
but lime and barnyard manure both nearly always increase 
the yield, and phosphatic fertilizers are usually beneficial. 
The results with potash are negative in about half of the 
experiments reported. 

Brooks in Massachusetts found no appreciable difference 
in the effect of potash when applied as muriate and as 
sulfate. Chemical analysis, however, showed in all 
cases a higher per cent of ^' nitrogen-free extract " in the 
clover fertilized with the sulfate of potash. 

In New Jersey the use of superphosphates with other 
crops was quite beneficial in increasing the clover crop. 
Potash also was useful, but barnyard manure gave the 
best results of all. There was no residual effect from 
nitrate of soda, and land plaster was without effect. 

At the Cornell Experiment Station pot experiments 
showed that clover was unable to obtain the phosphorus 
in ground rock phosphate, but was greatly benefited by 
acid phosphate, basic slag or bone black. These results 
agree with those of Kossovich in Russia. 

At the West Virginia Experiment Station phosphatic 
fertilizers greatly benefited red clover, but potash did not 
increase the yield. 

In southern Illinois, Hopkins secured an average in- 
crease of 1.14 tons hay to an acre by the use of 2000 pounds 
ground limestone and 1200 to 1500 pounds ground rock 
phosphate. " Accumulating evidence indicates that the 
increasing frequency of clover failure in the Illinois corn 
belt is due in many cases to deficiency in phosphorus." 

Mooers at the Tennessee Experiment Station tested 
various fertilizers on a mixture of orchard-grass and red 
clover. " At the start all the plots had apparently about 
an equal stand of cover and of orchard-grass, but on the 



376 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

plots which received acid phosphate or a mixture of acid 
phosphate and potash salts the growth of clover predomi- 
nated more and more as the season advanced. On the 
other hand, where the nitrate of soda was used alone or 
in a mixture with acid phosphate and potash the orchard- 
grass predominated; that is, the minerals enabled the 
clover to crowd the grass, while the nitrate of soda enabled 
the grass to crowd the clover." 

440. Gypsum. — Gypsum was formerly much used for 
its favorable effect on clover, but in the United States 
now seems to be employed only in western Oregon. At 
the Oregon Experiment Station, increases in yield of from 
20 to 200 per cent were secured. The rate of application 
varies from 40 to 200 pounds to an acre. 

The cessation of the use of this substance in the East- 
ern States is perhaps largely the result of the increased 
use of lime. There is difference of opinion as to the 
action of gypsum, but it is generally agreed that it is in- 
effective on poor land. 

441. Lime. — Lime has in general given an increased 
yield when applied to the soil before sowing red clover. 
Usual applications are 1000 to 2000 pounds of burned 
lime or twice as much of ground limestone to an acre. 

Most investigators regard the litmus test as a fairly 
reliable indication that the soil needs lime, but in some 
cases this does not hold true. For example, at the Ohio 
Experiment Station clover grew normally on one soil and 
but poorly on two others, all of which reddened litmus 
paper. Lime alone did not benefit the first soil for 
clover but improved the crop on the last two, though it 
did not bring about a full yield. 

442. Irrigation. — Clover is not much gro"wn on irrigated , 
lands, principally because alfalfa will yield far larger 



RED CLOVER 377 

crops. In high mountain valleys, however, clover suc- 
ceeds well under irrigation, notably in the Gallatin Valley, 
Montana, but similar success has been had in several 
Western States, either when sown alone or mixed with 
timothy. 

King in Wisconsin tested irrigation on red clover. 
Where the plots were irrigated twice after the first cutting, 
the second cutting was over two tons to an acre as against 
one ton where not irrigated. Irrigation after the second 
cutting also increased greatly the fall pasturage. With 
an optimum amount of water, either rain or irrigation, 
King concludes that the clover crop may be double what 
is ordinarily secured. 

443. Red clover in mixtures. — Much more 'red clover 
is sown in mixture with timothy than in any other way, 
approximately three-fourths of the total acreage being 
thus sown. The timothy is commonly sown with wheat 
in fall, and the clover added in the spring. 

In this mixture the crop is mainly clover the season after 
sowing, but thereafter is mainly timothy. An objection 
to this mixture is that medium clover matures sooner 
than the timothy, but this may be avoided by using the 
mammoth variety. Red clover and alsike are also fre- 
quently sown together, especially where there is difficulty 
in securing a stand of the former. 

Other grasses suitable to grow with red clover are 
orchard-grass and tall meadow oat-grass, but these mature 
somewhat sooner. In complex grass mixtures, which are 
more popular in Europe than in America, red clover should 
always be included. 

444. Use in rotations. — The characteristics of red 
clover make it particularly well adapted to use in rotation 
with other crops. Various such rotations are possible, 



378 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

but only a few of the most important and their modifica- 
tions need to be discussed. 

1. Corn, oats, ivheat, clover, timothy. — This five-year, 
five-crop rotation is the commonest one employed in the 
Central States. The timothy is seeded with the wheat 
in the fall, and the clover on the wheat in the spring. In 
the fourth year of the rotation the crop is largely clover, 
and in the fifth mainly timothy. Rye may be substituted 
for wheat in some places. 

2. Corn, oats, ivheat, clover. — Where the hay is not 
needed for live stock, the timothy may be omitted and the 
clover, preferably mammoth, grown for seed only, the 
straw and the stubble being plowed under. This is an 
excellent plan to follow on farms where it is not desired 
to keep five stock. 

3. Corn, ivheat, clover. — This rotation of three years 
and three crops is employed where wheat is sown in the 
spring. Rye, barley or oats may be used instead of the 
wheat, and any other cultivated crop in place of the corn. 

4. Corn, clover or corn, corn, clover. — This is the sim- 
plest of all clover rotations, but probably brings the clover 
too frequently to secure the best results. The clover 
may be sown in the corn at its last cultivation, or in the 
spring in the stubble, or after preparing the land. 

445. Effect of clover in rotations when only the stubble 
is turned under. — Red clover usually exercises a mark- 
edly beneficial influence on the crop that succeeds it, even 
where the clover has been cropped. This is ascribed 
mainly to the humus and nitrogen added to the soil by the 
roots and stubble. 

At the Massachusetts Experiment Station, potatoes 
after clover stubble, on land that had not been fertilized 
for 16 years, the yield of potatoes was 95 per cent as great 



RED CLOVER 379 

as on similar plots that had received a fair amount of 
fertilizer containing nitrogen each year. At the Rhode 
Island Experiment Station potatoes yielded 294.5 bushels 
after clover and 259.7 bushels after corn. At the Pennsyl- 
vania Experiment Station the fertility of the soil was 
fully maintained for 25 years on certain plots where clover 
was grown every fourth year in the rotation and only the 
stubble plowed under. No barnyard manure was used, 
but each alternate year 48 pounds of phosphoric acid and 
100 pounds of potash per acre was added. 

The results at the Ohio Experiment Station show that 
in general a good crop of clover will leave enough nitrogen 
in the roots and stubble for the succeeding crop, but the 
nitrogen supply cannot be maintained by clover alone 
even if planted every third year. At the Illinois Experi- 
ment Station the yield of corn grown continuously for 7 
years averaged 35.7 bushels to an acre. In a rotation of 
corn, oats, clover, the average yield of corn for the 5 years 
immediately after clover was 55.1 bushels, and after clover 
cropped two years 46.8 bushels to an acre. At the Minne- 
sota Experiment Station it was found that 6 pounds of red 
clover sown with wheat in continuous wheat culture in- 
creased the average yield of wheat for 10 years 3i bushels 
to an acre. The results at this station taken as a whole 
show that the nitrogen content of the soil is preserved if red 
clover is grown two years in a five-year rotation. At the 
Canebrake, Alabama, Experiment Station, oats yielded 
52 bushels an acre after four-year-old clover stubble, 
while a yield of 54 bushels was obtained by using 200 
pounds of nitrate of soda to an acre. 

446. Volunteer crops. — A good stand of red clover is 
sometimes secured by the scattering of barnyard manure 
which happens to contain sufficient viable seed. 



880 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



Volunteer crops may also be secured from fields when 
some of the seed has been lost in harvesting, or by allow- 
ing the seed to become shattered. Successful fields were 
obtained in this manner at the Louisiana Experiment 
Station and in Alabama. 

To secure a stand in this manner is, however, very un- 
certain, and further, it is better to grow some other crop 
than to have clover follow clover. 

447. Stage to cut. — If red clover be used as green feed, 
it is probably best cut before bloom. This method of 
feeding is more common in Europe than in America. 
European authorities nearly all agree that the clover for 
this purpose should be cut before blooming, as the digesti- 
biUty is then highest, as well as the percentage composition 
of protein. 

If cut for hay, different authorities recommend cutting 
in young bloom, in full bloom, and when the heads are 
half brown. The content of digestible nutrients is greatest 
in full bloom. Later cuttings, however, cure more easily 
than the early ones, and it is probable that better curing 
counterbalances largely the lower content of nutrients : — 

Table showing Relation between Time of Cutting and 
Acre Yield of Red Clover in Pounds on a Water- 
free Basis 



Stage when Cut 



Just before bloom . 

Full bloom 

Some heads dead 
Three-fourths heads dead 
All heads dead . . . . 
Nearly out of bloom . 
Nearly ripe 



Illinois 


Pennsyl- 
vania 






2526 


3680 
3420 


2427 


3361 













Connecti- 
cut 



1385 
1401 



1750 
1523 




A Field of Sumac Sorgo in Texas. 




A Field of Red Clover in Washington State. 
PLATE V. 



BED CLOVER 381 

448. Composition at different stages. — Several inves- 
tigators have studied the composition of clover at dif- 
ferent stages of its development. The total dry matter 
and the ash increase until maturity, though in some 
cases there is a slight decline after flowering, due to leach- 
ing. The highest percentage of protein is contained before 
blossoming, but the greatest total amount when the plants 
are in full bloom. The fatty substances show but little 
change in their relative amounts. The percentage of 
fiber increases quite rapidly after blooming. The per- 
centage of carbohydrates shows little change, but is 
greatest during blooming. 

The greatest total amount of digestible substance is 
about the time of full bloom. The highest percentage of 
nutritive substance is before bloom, and also the highest 
percentage of digestibility. 

449. Number of cuttings. — Mammoth clover yields 
but a. single cutting of mature hay, the second growth 
never becoming large enough to justify mowing. Orel 
red clover behaves in the same way. 

Medium red clover, over much of the area best adapted 
to it, yields a heavy crop of hay at the first cutting, and 
later a second smaller cutting. Usually the second cut- 
ting is allowed to mature for seed. 

Near the northern limit of clover culture but one crop 
of either hay or seed can be obtained. 

In Louisiana, near the southern extreme of its success- 
ful culture, reel clover is best sown in October, when two 
cuttings of hay, one in May and one in July, are usually 
secured. 

European experiments have consistently shown a greater 
total yield of hay from two cuttings than from a greater 
number. Voelcker in Germany secured a less yield from 



382 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

three and four cuttings than from two, and still less when 
the clover was cut five and six times, but the smallest yield 
of all when cut but once. Weiske secured 3570 kilograms 
to an hectare when cut twice, and only 3392 kilograms 
when cut three times. In another experiment in Germany, 
clover was cut six times and yielded only 4678 pounds to 
an acre against 9297 pounds when cut but twice. It 
is probable, therefore, that the total yield of red clover 
is much less if pastured than if cut for hay. 

450. Yields of hay. — The average yield of red clover 
hay in the United States in 1909 was 1.29 tons to an 
acre when sown alone and 1.27 tons to an acre mixed 
with timothy. 

At the Michigan Experiment Station red clover grown 
continuously for 5 years from 1896 to 1900 averaged 3110 
pounds hay to an acre. In rotations the yields were 
higher. During the years 1906-7-8 clover grown con- 
tinuously averaged 2430 pounds to an acre on one plot and 
2240 pounds on another ; in simple rotation with wheat 
2520 pounds on one plot and 2457 pounds on another ; 
in a three-year rotation with wheat and corn, 2143 pounds 
on one plot, 2683 pounds on another. 

At the Rhode Island Experiment Station with very 
heavy fertilizing reel clover produced to an acre 6360 pounds 
hay in the first cutting and 2760 pounds in the second. 
At the North Dakota Experiment Station the average 
hay yield to an acre of the first cutting for 7 years was 3547 
pounds. At the Ontario Agricultural College the average 
hay yield to an acre for 6 years of the first cutting was 5900 
pounds of medium red and 6620 pounds of mammoth. 

451. Relation of green weight to hay weight. — Taking 
the average water content of green clover at 72 per cent 



BED CLOVER 



383 



and that of clover hay at 18 per cent, the ratio of green 
weight to hay weight would be approximately 3 to 1. 

The available American field data show, however, a 
wide range of variation in the ratio both as to different 
places and as to different strains in the same place : — 

Table showing Corresponding Yields of Red Clover 
Green and Dry 



Green Weight 


Hay 


Ratio 


Place and Authority 


Pounds 


Pounds 






17461 


4482 


3.9 


Penn. Exp. Sta. 


17760 


4808 


3.7 


Penn. Exp. Sta. 


11020 


3260 


3.7 


Wis. Exp. Sta. Bui. 121. 


First cutting 








4620 


1740 


2.7 


Wis. Exp. Sta. Bui. 121. 


Second cutting 








20939 


4335 


4.8 


Minn. Exp. Sta. (Bur. PL Ind. 
Bui. 95) average for 21 strains. 


16474 


2760 


6. 


Guelph. Canada (Bur. PI. Ind. Bui. 
95) average for 29 strains. 


23280 


2880 


8.1 


Guelph (Courland, Russia, strain). 


20800 


4360 


4.8 


Guelph (Orel, Russia, strain). 



452. Feeding value. — But few feeding experiments 
have been recorded that show the feeding value of red 
clover compared with other hays. It is, however, gener- 
ally recognized to be of high value. 

At the Indiana Experiment Station clover and timothy 
were compared in fattening steers, using corn as a con- 
centrate. The animals fed on clover consumed 1.41 pounds 
more hay each day and 3.06 pounds more corn. The 
a,ctual gain and the cost of a hundredweight of gain was 
distinctly in favor of the clover. ^' Throughout the 



384 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

experiment the condition of the clover-fed steers was 
much better." 

453. Comparative feeding value of the first and second 
crops of hay. — As the second crop of clover is but rarely 
cut for hay, the subject of the relative value of the hay 
of the two cuttings has received but little attention. 

At the Tennessee Experiment Station the crop of red 
clover hay from the second cutting was found both less 
palatable and also less nutritious to steers. Comparative 
chemical analyses showed but very slight differences. 

454. Soiling. — Red clover is an excellent green feed 
for milch cows. German experiments show that it pro- 
duces more milk than an equivalent amount of hay. 

Bloating seems never to occur when clover is fed in this 
manner, but it must be neither wet with dew or rain 
when cut, nor should it be wilted. 

The acre yields of green matter from fields of red clover 
have been measured by several investigators. At the 
Pennsylvania Experiment Station, the first cutting yielded 
17,461 pounds. At the Idaho Experiment Station yields 
of 12 tons from hill land and 18 tons from bottom were 
secured. Three cuttings at Agassiz, B. C, in one season, 
were, respectively, 14.5, 12.0 and 6.2 tons. At the Minne- 
sota Experiment Station the average yield from 21 regional 
strains at the first cutting was 20,948 pounds. 

Green feeding of clover is the usual mode of utilizing 
in many parts of Europe. It is usually cut shortly before 
the blossoms appear, as the nitrogen content is highest 
at this time, and there is but little fiber. 

455. Pasturage. — Red clover makes an excellent pas- 
ture for all kinds of live stock, but care must be exercised 
with ruminants to avoid bloating (Par. 101). As ordinarily 
grown in rotations, the crop furnishes some pasturage in 



BED CLOVER 385 

the fall of the season it is planted, but it should not be 
grazed too closely, otherwise the danger of winter injury 
is increased. Where two crops of hay are harvested the 
second season, there may still be some pasturage produced, 
especially if soil moisture conditions are favorable. There 
is rarely much pasturage after a seed crop has been 
harvested. 

456. Silage. — Red clover may be preserved as si- 
lage, especially when unfavorable weather makes haying 
impracticable. The results so far obtained with pure 
red clover thus preserved have not been entirely satisfac- 
tory. At the Canada Central Experimental Farm, clover 
silage was found on the basis of chemical analysis to be of 
less feeding value than green clover, but the silage was 
eaten with eagerness both when the clover was put in 
whole and when cut into lengths of 1 inch. At the Wis- 
consin Experiment Station clover silage varied greatly in 
quality, some samples being very good, others ill smelling. 

At the Oregon Experiment Station, clover was ensiled 
when the first heads were beginning to discolor. The 
clover was run through a cutter and made good silage. 
There was no apparent need of additional water. At the 
Ohio Experiment Station clover silage was kept three 
years and was then eaten readily. The clover should 
be ensiled as rapidly as possible after mowing, first run- 
ning it through a cutter to insure close packing. 

457. Number of flowers and seeds to the head. — 
The number of flowers in a head of red clover averages 
about 85. At Ames, Iowa, Pammel reports that the num- 
ber of flowers to a head varies apparently with soil condi- 
tions. On black loam the average for the first crop was 
71.1 and for the second crop 98.1, or where underlaid with 
gravel, 101 ; on alluvial soil, third crop, 68.7. The maxi- 

2c 



386 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



mum number found in any head was 140 for the first 
crop, 150 for the second and 123 for the third. 

The ovary of red clover contains two ovules, but of 
these usually only one matures. Good heads contain 
from 16 to 40 seeds each, the average being about 25. In 
exceptional plants, both ovules may develop. Records 
have been published of heads containing 90 to 130 seeds 
each. 

Beal in Michigan counted the seeds in 50 heads from 
each of 6 plants, finding, respectively, 1260, 1275, 1640, 
1485, 1820 and 2720 seeds. 

Hopkins at the West Virginia Experiment Station 
found that 122 red clover heads of the first crop contained 
6042 seeds, an average of over 49 seeds per head. 

Pammel has made numerous counts of seeds to the head 
in Iowa. His results are tabulated as follows : — 

Red Clover Seeds to the Head — First and Second Crops 

IN Iowa 



Place 


Soil 


Crop 


Heads 
Counted 


Seeds 
PER Head 


Ames 

Idagrove . . 
Algona . . 
Harlan . . 


Clay loam 
Black loess 
Black loam 
Black soil 


First 

First 

Second 

Second 

First 

Second 

First 

Second 


44 

50 

28 

50 

1242 

701 

200 

200 


64.7 

1.82 
80.4 
3.9 
25.99 
27.55 
41.1 
43.7 



















The average number of seeds to a head is sometimes used 
to estimate the probable yield of seed to an acre. If the 
seeds average 25 to the head, and the stand is good, a 
yield of one to two bushels to an acre may be expected. 



RED CLOVER 387 

458. Pollination and fecundation. — The flowers of 
red clover are especially adapted to being cross-pollinated 
by insects, especially bumble bees. 

Mliller records 39 species of insects that visit red clover 
flowers in Germany. One species of bumble bee secures 
the honey by biting through the base of the corolla. For 
Iowa, Pammel records 14 species, 8 of them being bumble 
bees. In Illinois, Robertson observed 20 species, five 
of them being bumble bees. 

Plants screened from flying insects failed to set any 
seeds in the experiments conducted by Darwin in Eng- 
land, and this has been the common result secured by later 
experimenters. Some investigators have, however, found 
a few seeds produced by screened plants. 

Frandsen in Sweden has recently made extensive studies 
regarding the matter. In 1910 out of numerous bagged 
and undisturbed flowers he secured no seed ; when arti- 
ficially self -pollinated, 0.1 per cent of the flowers set seed ; 
when artificially pollinated by another flower of the same 
plant, 0.8 per cent ; when artificially cross-pollinated, 
46.1 per cent. In 1911 in similar experiments the per- 
centage of seeds to flowers by the three methods was, 
respectively, per cent, 0.1 per cent, 0.4 per cent and 
42.3 per cent. 

Waldron at Dickinson, North Dakota, found that 
53.6 per cent of the heads produced seeds in the open and 
but 9 per cent when screened. When butterflies were 
placed in netting tents over red clover, only 2.4 per cent 
of the heads set seed, but when bumble bees were thus 
placed, 45.7 per cent of the heads produced seeds. 

459. Seed-production. — Medium red clover seed is 
mainly produced in those regions where a crop of seed 
can be procured after one of hay has been harvested. In 



388 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



the northernmost regions of clover culture, only one crop 
can be secured, which may be either hay or seed. Mam- 
moth clover does not produce much second growth, so 
that the hay crop must be sacrificed when a seed crop is 
desired. 

Where two cuttings can be obtained, it is very rare 
that the first is ever cut for seed. The first crop does not 
as a rule seed heavily. Two reasons have been assigned 

in explanation — first, that 
pollinizing insects are not 
abundant enough ; and second, 
the plants tend to produce new 
shoots from the base unless 
weather conditions are very 
dry. There are no experi- 
mental data recorded, however, 
as to the relative seed-yielding 
capacities of the first crop and 
the second crop, but in Iowa 
more seeds to a head have 
been found in the second crop 
than in the first. 
Seed crops are not usually harvested until the second 
season, but sometimes a fair seed yield may be obtained 
from clover sown in spring, either on wheat or alone. 
This treatment is thought, however, to weaken the 
plants and materially lessen the growth the following 
season. 

The best seed crops are obtained when the growth of 
the clover is not rank, and when dry, cloudless weather 
conditions prevail during the period of blooming and ripen- 
ing. For the first reason, light soils are supposed to pro- 
duce better seed crops than clays or clay loams^ especially 




Fig. 41. — Stages in the de- 
velopment of red clover seed. 
a and c, flower in prime and 
ripe ; b and d, immature and 
mature seed vessel ; e, mature 
seed. 



nEB CLOVER 389 

if the latter be moist so as to stimulate much vegetative 
growth. Pammel's investigations in Iowa did not, how- 
ever, disclose any definite relations between the character 
of the soil and the number of seeds to a head. Sunshiny, 
warm days at blooming time insure a greater abundance 
of poUinizing insects, and these are absent in cold, wet 
weather. 

Where the first crop is cut for hay, the time of cutting 
may affect markedly the subsequent seed crop. Clover 
hay is usually cut when the first heads turn brown, but the 
belief is general that the seed crop is apt to be better if the 
hay crop is cut a little before full bloom, as this makes the 
second growth stronger. 

Where the season is not long enough to secure both a 
hay crop and a seed crop, as in the northern tier of states, 
it is a common practice to pasture the field or to clip it 
back in June, so as to bring the seed crop in September. 
It is claimed that by this means better yields of seed are 
obtained. Among the advantages supposed to be secured 
are: 1. A more even ripening of the crop; 2. A more 
favorable season for blooming and seed setting ; 3. Lessen- 
ing of injury by the clover midge and the clover chalcis ; 
4. A smaller growth, which is not likely to lodge and is 
more easily handled. Experimental data on this subject 
are lacking. 

Prolonged rains at harvest time seem to be the cause 
of many of the seeds turning brown. Seeds that have 
turned brown with age do not germinate nearly as well as 
yellow or violet-tinged seeds. 

460. Harvesting the seed crop. — Red clover for seed 
should be cut when the heads have all turned brown, and 
the seeds are firm and shining. Cutting in the soft dough 
stage results in shriveled seed. If the seeds are allowed 



390 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

to ripen, there is no loss by shattering, but the heads 
break off very easily. If the clover has become riper than 
stated, much loss of heads can be prevented by mowing 
in the early morning when wet with dew. 

Mowing may be accomplished in several different ways. 
A self -rake reaper is very satisfactory. An ordinary mower 
with a bunching attachment (Fig. 42) that throws the 
bunches of clover to one side so that they may not be 
trampled upon, is also excellent. Heading machines 
which cut the straw high are sometimes used, and these 

are particularly de- 
sirable, as they econo- 
mize labor and cut 
much less straw to be 
thrashed. 

Red clover is most 
commonly harvested. 

Fig. 42. — A bunching attachment on an however by mowing 
ordinary mower. ... , . . , 

and then rakmg mto 
windrows, using practically the same method as in har- 
vesting hay. 

In favorable weather the clover is ready to store or hull 
in about four days if cut in the late dough stage. The 
bunches should then be piled in cocks, or better, placed 
under cover. During unfavorable weather there is some 
danger of the seed sprouting if the clover is kept contin- 
uously damp. 

In the principal seed-growing districts, special machines 
called clover hullers are used to thrash the seed and shell 
it from the pods. This can be done only when the straw 
is very dry. 

461. Yields of seed. — The yield of seed to an acre for 
the main part of the clover area probably averages about 




BED CLOVER 391 

100 pounds, and rarely reaches 300 pounds. Yields have 
been reported by experiment stations, as follows : North 
Dakota, 46 to 146 pounds ; Oregon, 175 to 250 pounds. 

For the Willamette Valley, Oregon, Hunter reports the 
usual yield 4 to 6 bushels, and occasionally 7 to 9 bushels 
to an acre. 

The average yield of seed in Wisconsin in 1905 was 
1.84 bushels to an acre, but this was somewhat lower than 
usual. In northern Wisconsin, a maximum yield of 4J 
bushels to an acre is reported. 

Werner gives the yields in Germany at 150 to 225 pounds 
to an acre. 

462. Statistics of seed crop. — The total yield of clover 
seed in the United States in 1899 was 1,349,209 bushels 
valued at $5,359,578. In 1909 the corresponding figures 
were 1,025,816 bushels valued at $6,925,122. The 
principal seed-producing states in the order of the total 
yield produced were, in the latter year, Wisconsin, Ohio, 
Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, Minnesota, Iowa, 
Oregon. 

Clover seed has been an article of export from the United 
States since 1792. 

463. Value of the straw. — The straw of red clover 
from which the seed has been thrashed possesses but little 
feeding value, and is both coarse and unpalatable. 
Usually much of its little feeding value is diminished by 
being rained upon. Animals will, however, eat some of 
the straw, and this, combined with its value for bedding, 
makes it worth saving. 

Perhaps the best use to make of the straw is for bed- 
ding, but it is often scattered directly on the field. 

464. Seed. — Seed of red clover (Fig. 43) is readily dis- 
tinguished from similar leguminous seeds by its color, 



392 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



which is yellow or violet, or both combined. Old seeds 

become dull and brownish. 

The seed may be adulterated with yellow trefoil ; 

with old red clover seeds sometimes oiled and polished ; 

and with small or shriveled seed obtained in screenings. 

Where cheaper foreign clover seed has been added to 

American seed it may be detected by the presence of cer- 
tain weed seeds. A 
large proportion of 
small seeds indicates 
that these have been 
added. 

The most objection- 
able weed seeds that 
may occur in red clover 
are dodder, Canada 
thistle, curled dock, 
buckhorn and oxeye- 
daisy. 

The best commercial 
red clover seed may 
attain a purity of 99 




Fig. 43. — Seeds of red clover. 1, side 
view and, 2, edge view of seeds ; 3, the 
triangular form indicated ; 4, a seed cut 
lengthwise ; 5, a seed cut crosswise, show- 
ing the embryo ; a, a seed scar ; b, a 
stemlet (radicle) of the embryo ; c, seed 
leaves (cotyledons) of the embryo ; 6, a 
pod of red clover; 7, natural size of 
seeds. 



per cent and a viability 
of 98 per cent. Good seeds germinate in from 2 to 6 
days, excepting the " hard " seeds. The percentage of 
hard seeds is often 20 per cent and may reach 50 per 
cent in very fresh seeds. 

The seed varies in weight from 60 to 63 pounds a 
bushel. One pound contains 279,000 seeds (Stebler), 
232,000 seeds (Hunter), 200,000 to 240,000 seeds (Hunt). 

The optimum temperature for germination was found 
by the Ontario Agricultural College to be 90° Fahrenheit. 
At 95° the vitality was distinctly impaired. 



RED CLOVER 393 

Hiltner and Kingel examined a sample of red clover 
seed that had been stored 8 years. It was separated into 
three lots : first, those which were apparently unchanged ; 
second, those which were pale in color; and third, those 
which were brown and more or less shriveled. Of the 
first lot 10.5 per cent germinated and 81.9 per cent re- 
mained hard. In the other lots the germination ranged 
from 1.7 to 8.1 per cent. By scratching the seed coats 
of those that remained hard,- it was found that nearly all 
were viable. 

465. Color of seeds. — The seeds of red clover are 
either pure yellow or more or less completely tinged with 
violet, but never wholly violet. There is a popular 
belief that violet-tinged seed is superior in viability and 
vigor. This subject has received attention from various 
investigators. 

Gernert in Illinois finds that white-flowered plants 
produce yellow seeds without trace of purple. Plants 
with dark red flowers yield invariably seeds much tinged 
with violet, while those with pink flowers in some cases 
produced yellow seeds. The violet color appears late, 
and may not show in prematurely gathered seeds. Five 
plants were selected, each with a different seed color ; 
namely, pea ; purple tint on yellow ; reddish-purple on 
yellow ; medium purple on yellow ; dark purple on 
yellow. The progeny of each of these showed a wide 
range as regards seed color, indicating that the parent 
plants were heterozygote as regards seed color. The 
data suggest that the character is a Mendelian one, and 
that it is entirely feasible to isolate strains with violet- 
tinged seeds. 

Friiwirth in Austria concludes that there is a tendency 
for clover plants to produce seeds of one color. Thus 



394 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

one plant produced 160 deep yellow and 445 yellow seeds ; 
another, 154 violet, 125 variegated, 58 deep yellow and 11 
yellow seeds ; a third, 177 deep yellow and 366 yellow seeds ; 
a fourth, 131 variegated and 47 deep yellow seeds. Yel- 
low seeds are more likely to breed true than violet-tinged 
seeds. In weight, violet seeds are heaviest, followed by 
variegated and yellow. He obtained a higher yield of 
air-dry substance in the crop from yellow seeds than from 
either violet or variegated, a result in accord with that 
of the Kentucky Experiment Station. 

Card in Rhode Island analyzed plants grown from yel- 
low seeds and from purple seeds, but found no difference 
in their nitrogen content. 

466. Roots. — The roots of red clover penetrate to a 
maximum depth of about six feet, but ordinarily not 
more than four feet. Hays at the Minnesota Experiment 
Station found that the tap root was 7 inches long after 

1 month, 2 feet after 2 months, and after five months 5| 
feet. The lateral roots were a little deeper than the main 
root. 

The greater part of the roots is in the top six inches 
of soil and according to all investigations about 95 per 
cent in the top 8 inches. Thus, John in Germany found 
the following vertical distribution : — 

7.8 to 9.0 cm. deep — 3760 kg. to a hectare. 

15.7 to 18.3 cm. deep — 338 kg. to a hectare. 

27.4 to 28.8 cm. deep — 196 kg. to a hectare. 

36.6 to 39.2 cm. deep — 78 kg. to a hectare. 

At the Utah Experiment Station the weight of roots 
was estimated for each inch of depth in fields respectively 

2 years old and 4 years old. The basis was the weight of 
roots obtained from an area 2 feet square : — 



BED CLOVER 



395 



Table showing Weight of Red Clover Roots to an Acre 
FOR Each Inch of Depth, Utah Experiment Station 



Depth 


4 Years Old 


2 Years Old 


Inches 


Water-free 


Water-free 


1 


1058.4 


240.7 


2 


1248.5 


449.3 


3 


1181. 


433.9 


4 


1142.4 


170.9 


5 


508.8 


149.3 


6 


124.8 


137.5 


7 


88.8 




8 


66.3 




9 


62.2 




10 


50.4 




11 


50.2 




12 


48.5 




Total . 


5630.3 


1481.6 



At the Minnesota Experiment Station, Snyder found in 
a square yard of earth that clover roots when water-free 
weighed : 122 grams just before the heads appeared ; 
320 grams in early bloom ; and 916 grams in full bloom. 

At the Delaware Experiment Station, Penny determined 
that the roots 8 inches deep weighed, air-dry, 1185 pounds, 
and the next 4 inches 27 pounds, the whole containing 33 
pounds nitrogen. The tops weighed 2819 pounds. 

At the Connecticut Experiment Station Woods esti- 
mated the roots 8 inches deep to contain 850 pounds, 
and those in the subsoil 48 pounds of dry matter. At 
Middletown, Connecticut, a crop was determined to have 
1355 pounds of dry matter in the roots. 

467. Shoots. — The main axis of the red clover is a 
rather deep-seated, short crown, from which arise a dense 



396 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

mass of basal leaves. From the axils of each of these, a 
secondary leafy aerial branch may arise, and these con- 
stitute the larger visible portion of the plants. Each sec- 
ondary branch is terminated by a head of flowers, but 
commonly bears also tertiary branches each terminated 
by a head of flowers. One shoot may thus bear as high 
as 14 heads of flowers. 

The height of the secondary branches varies with the 
fertility of the soil, but they seldom exceed 30 inches under 
field conditions. The number is usually from 10 to 20, 
but as many as 76 have been found on a single plant. 
After cutting, the branches die back as far as the lowest 
internodes. 

In winter the hibernating shoots lie close to the ground. 

Werner found that a well-grown plant with 108 leaves 
had a surface area of 712 square centimeters. Von Gahren 
in a similar examination found 875 square centimeters. 

468. Proportion of roots to shoots. — Several investi- 
gators have determined the relative proportion of the 
different parts of the clover plant. 

At the Arkansas Experiment Station single plants 
showed an average dry weight of two ounces for the 
tops and 2| ounces for the roots. Smith in Michigan 
examined plants of red clover at the end of September. 
Those sown the previous spring had 4.625 pounds of tops 
and .75 pound of roots, while those sown the year before 
in June had 1.5 pounds of tops to 1.44 pounds of roots, 
in each case weighed when fresh. King in Wisconsin 
estimated the green weight of the tops to an acre at 
12,486 pounds and of the roots at 3120 pounds. The 
data used for the estimates were obtained by driving 
down a cylinder 12 inches in diameter and 30 inches 
long. Snyder in Minnesota estimated that an acre field 



BED CLOVER 



397 



yielding 4000 pounds of hay contained 1760 pounds of 
dry roots. At the Delaware Experiment Station the 
tops and roots to an acre were determined respectively 
at 2819 and 1212 pounds dry weight. 

At the Central Experiment Farm, Canada, the roots 
were dug from areas 4 feet square and 9 inches deep on 
seven different plots. The estimated green weights to an 
acre are shown in the following table : — 

Estimated Green Weight of Tops and Roots to an Acre, 
Canada Central Experiment Farm 



Plots 


Leaves and Stems 


Roots 


Rate of Seeding 




Pounds 


Pounds 




1 


5441 


5105 


4 pounds 


2 


6849 


5147 


4 pounds 


3 


6934 


6047 


4 pounds 


4 


8508 


5785 


4 pounds 


5 


7997 


5615 


4 pounds 


6 


7657 


4349 


4 pounds 


7 


10209 


6296 


14 pounds 


Total . . 


53595 


38344 





469. Relative proportions of stems, leaves and flower 
heads. — Dietrich in Germany studied the relative per- 
centage weights of leaves, stems and flower heads at dif- 
ferent ages. The following results were secured : — 





March 31 


April 26 


May 19 


June 1 


June 16 


Flower- 




Leaves 


Stems 


Buds 


First 


Full 


ing 




Forming 


Forming 


Forming 


Flowers 


Bloom 


Finished 




Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Leaves . 


40 


41 


24 


24 


19 


18 


Leaf stalks 


60 


29 


14 


12 


11 


10 


Stems 


— 


30 


58 


58 


59 


60 


Flower heads 


— 


— 


4 


6 


11 


12 



398 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

From these figures, clover hay should consist of about 
60 per cent stems, 30 per cent leaves and 10 per cent 
flower heads. 

470. Diseases. — Red clover is subject to a long hst 
of fungous diseases, few of which are, however, a serious 
menace to its culture. Only the more important and more 
common ones are here mentioned. 

The leaves may be affected by clover leaf-spot (Pseu- 
dopeziza trijolii) ; black spot (Polythrincium trifoUi) ; 
powdery mildew {Erysiphe polygoni) ; downy mildew 
(Peronospora trifoliorum) ; and clover rust ( Uromyces 
striatus). It is rare that any of these diseases causes much 
damage. 

The roots are subject to a root rot (Rhizoctonia violacea). 

The stems are sometimes injured by stem rot (Sclero- 
tinia trifoliorum) which is easily recognizable by the large 
dark sclerotia formed. Clover anthracnose {Colleto- 
trichum trijolii) is probably the most destructive disease 
that has attacked red clover in America. It appears as 
purplish spots on the stem which increase in size until the 
stem is girdled and thus killed. It is known to occur in 
Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Tennessee and Alabama, and 
is probably much more widely spread. No direct means 
of control is known, but results secured at the Tennessee 
Experiment Station show that highly resistant strains 
may be secured by selection. 

Two other anthracnoses, caused respectively by Colle' 
totrichum cereale and Gloeosporium trijolii, are also found 
occasionally, but no serious damage by either has been 
reported. 

471. Clover sickness. — This term is used to designate 
a condition or conditions which prevent the successful 
growing of red clover, at least continuously. This has 



RED CLOVER 399 

long been recognized in Europe, where numerous explana- 
tions as to its cause have been advanced. The principal' 
theories are : 1. The exhaustion of some necessary element 
from the soil, in particular lime, potash or phosphorus ; 
2. The formation or excretion by the clover plant of some 
deleterious substance ; 3. Unfavorable physical condition 
of the soil, especially the subsoil ; 4. Presence of disease- 
forming fungi or bacteria ; 5. Injurious insects and other 
animals ; 5. Depletion of humus content of the soil. 

None of these theories has been proven, but it is not 
unlikely that there may be some truth in each of them. 

Experience in Europe has shown that good clover may 
be grown on clover-sick soil if a sufficient interval of time 
elapse. In Germany this is usually four to six years, 
but on some soils a period of nine or even twelve years 
seems necessary. 

It is not certain that the increasing difficulty in secur- 
■ing a stand of red clover in various parts of the United 
States is the same as the European clover sickness, but 
this seems highly probable. The evidence indicates that 
the trouble first became prominent in the Atlantic States 
and has been slowly extending westward. Even in regions 
where clover sickness is common, land that has long been 
uncultivated will often produce good crops of red clover 
for a few years. Alsike clover, however, grows readily on 
land '' sick " to red clover, and in many places is now 
substituted for the red. 

Soil acidity has recently been considered to be a cause 
of failure with red clover, but lime has not proven to be 
a remedy for the trouble. It has not yet been demon- 
strated that the European practice of planting red clover 
at long intervals will be equally successful in this country. 

In England the question has been raised as to whether 



400 FORAGE PLANTS ANB THEIR CULTURE 

land becomes sick to naturalized wild plants of red and 
white clover. Several experiments have shown that 
clover plants grown from cultivated seeds disappear 
largely in 1 year, while those from wild plants persist 3 
to 5 years or more. One experiment with red clover 
resulted in the plants from cultivated seeds lasting but 
2 years, while those grown from seed gathered in an old 
meadow lived 5 or 6 years. 

472. Reduction of acreage probably due mainly to clover 
sickness. — The statistics of the thirteenth census of the 
United States, 1909, shows that a great decrease in the acre- 
age of clovers has taken place since 1899, especially in the 
eastern part of the country. Every state east of the 95th 
degree of longitude, excepting Illinois, shows such a decrease. 

The average decrease in the acreage of ^^ clover " for 
the whole United States was 40 per cent. In certain 
states the decrease was much greater, being 88 per cent 
in New Jersey, 78 per cent in Pennsylvania and 65 per 
cent in Indiana. In the states immediately west of the 
Mississippi River the decrease was not so great, but is 30 
per cent in Missouri, 23 per cent in Minnesota and 16 per 
cent in Iowa. In the states farther west the figures are of 
less interest, owing to the large acreage of new land brought 
under cultivation and the general preference for alfalfa. 

While the significance of the figures is not wholly clear, 
the most probable explanation is that it is associated with 
the increasing difficulty in securing stands of red clover. 
The striking contrast in the figures for 1899 and 1909 
may in part be due to unusual conditions in the latter 
year — but it does not appear from records that there 
was undue loss from winter-killing or other climatic causes 
in that year. The extent of the reduction in acreage is 
shown in the following table : — 



BED CLOVER 



401 



Table showing the Acreage of Clovers in the Eastern 
Part of the United States in 1899 and 1909 



New England States 
New York .... 
New Jersey 
Pennsylvania . 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Michigan . . . . 

Iowa 

Minnesota .... 
Wisconsin .... 
West Virginia. 
Maryland . . . . 
Virginia .... 
Missouri .... 

United States . . . 



Clover Acreage 



1899 



18,681 

103,155 

57,635 

293,683 

617,516 

776,810 

225,636 

148,720 

74,669 

203,253 

25,170 

67,375 

104,124 

377,228 



4,103,968 



1909 



15,097 

87,267 

6,893 

64,372 

181,048 

271,697 

168,180 

125,751 

57.358 

119,522 

6,661 

26,545 

54,016 

262,263 



2,443,263 



Decrease 
Per Cent 



19 
15 
88 
78 
71 
65 
25 
16 
23 
41 
73 
60 
48 
30 



40 



In Illinois the acreage in 1899 was 362,044, while in 
1909 it was 427,957, an increase of over 18 per cent. 

473. Insects. — There are five insects which cause rather 
serious damage to reel clover, one of them attacking the 
root, one the foliage, one the hay, one the flower and one 
the seed. 

The clover root-borer (Hylastinus ohscurus). — The 
clover root-borer is easily recognized from the fact that 
its larva burrows in the root, thus greatly injuring and 
sometimes killing the plant. The damage is nearly al- 
ways done in plaints the second season, after the roots have 
attained a considerable size. The only remedy suggested 
2d 



402 



FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



is to plow under the clover immediately after the first 
crop of hay is cut. With the death of the plant the larvae 
also die. If, however, the plowing is delayed until later, 
the larvae may have attained their growth and will then 
develop into adults. 

The clover-leaf weevil {Phytonom,us punctatus). — 
This little beetle and its larvae feed on the foliage of red 
clover in early spring. The damage is seldom serious, 
and in any event serves mainly to delay the maturing of 
the plant. 

The clover-flower midge {Dasyneura leguminicola) . — 
This little two-winged fly lays its eggs in the blossoms and 
the maggot injures the blossoms so that seeds are not 
formed. One method of control suggested is to cut the 
hay early, as this will destroy many of the larvae before 

they have time to develop further. 
When clover is grown primarily for 
seed, sometimes the first crop is 
clipped so as to bring the blooming 
of the next crop later in the summer, 
in this way avoiding much injury 
by the midge. 

The clover-seed chalcis fly (Brucho- 
phagus funehris). — This is a small, 
black, wasp-like insect whose larva 
develops in the clover seed, all of 
which is eaten excepting the hard 
shell. The work of this insect is 
conspicuous by the finding of hollow 
seeds, each containing a round hole 
through which the adult has emerged 
(Fig. 44) . The only remedy suggested is pasturing the 
crop in early spring, or clipping the first crop so as to 




Fig. 44. — Sketch 
showing the effect of 
the clover-seed chalcis 
fly. Calyx (a), seed cap- 
sule (b) and seeds (c 
and d). At c the ma- 
ture insect is shown in 
the act of emerging. 



RED CLOVER 403 

make the seed crop at a time when the fly is not 
abundant. 

The clover-hay worm {Hypsopygia costalis). — This is 
the larva of a small, brown moth which feeds on the dry 
hay in storage. Most of the damage is usually done near 
the bottom of hay stacks or mows. To some extent, it 
may be prevented by salting the hay, especially near the 
bottom of the stack. Where hay is stacked in the field, 
the injury is much lessened by building the stacks on a 
foundation of logs, or other platform. 

474. Improvement of red clover by breeding. — In 
recent years there has been much interest in the subject 
of breeding improved red clover. Individual plants differ 
greatly and this permits of selection for numerous dis- 
tinctive characters. More or less work of this kind has 
been conducted at the experiment stations of Tennessee, 
Illinois, Iowa, Indiana and North Dakota and by the 
United States Department of Agriculture. In Europe 
similar breeding researches have been undertaken in 
Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland. 

Breeding red clover presents difficulties in that cross- 
pollination is required and that, therefore, at least two 
individuals are necessary to start a strain. Furthermore, 
isolation is then required to prevent miscellaneous cross- 
pollination. 

Mass selection is much simpler, especially where an 
unfavorable factor eliminates a large proportion of the 
population. In this way a strain resistant to anthracnose 
has been developed at the Tennessee Experiment Station. 

Card in Rhode Island found that the nitrogen content 
of different individual plants ranged from 2.86 per cent 
to 4.62 per cent. This suggests the possibility of select- 
ing strains with high protein content. 



404 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

475. Disease-resistant strains. — There have been but 
few attempts made to secure strains of red clover immune 
to disease. Bain, at the Tennessee Experiment Station, 
has, however, thus bred a strain resistant to anthracnose 
{Colletotrichum trifolii) by selecting plants not affected 
by the disease. Apparently the same result was reached 
by Clarendon Davis, in northern Alabama, by merely 
saving the seed each year from the surviving plants. 



CHAPTER XVII 

OTHER CLOVERS.— ALSIKE, HUNGARIAN, 
WHITE AND SWEET 

The genus Trifolimn comprises a large list of species 
both annual and perennial, all of them confined to regions 
of temperate climate or at least temperate during the grow- 
ing period. Red clover is by far the most important eco- 
nomic species, but where there is difficulty in growing this 
crop other species, especially alsike and white clover, are 
very valuable substitutes. The clover-like plants of the 
genus Melilotus are also useful and worthy of more atten- 
tion than they have heretofore received. 

ALSIKE CLOVER {TrifoUum hyhridum) 

476. Botany of alsike. — The alsike clover is so named 
from a place in Sweden where it is much grown. It is 
also called Swedish clover. The scientific name was so 
given because Linnaeus erroneously believed it to be a 
hybrid between red clover and white clover. 

Alsike is native to the temperate portions of Europe 
and Asia and also occurs in Algiers. It is rare, however, 
in southern Europe. The plant is very variable, but 
only a few forms have received botanical names. Ascher- 
son and Graebner consider that cultivated alsike is a sub- 
species {TrifoUum fistulosum Gilibert), differing through 
long cultivation in having larger, less toothed leaves, 
larger heads and longer calyx teeth. Another subspecies 

405 



406 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

is Trifolium elegans Savi, with rose-colored flowers and 
other sHght differences. 

In recent years the improvement of alsike by selection 
has been undertaken at Svalof and other places in Europe. 

477. Agricultural history. — Alsike has long been 
cultivated in Sweden, probably as early as 1750. Its 
spread into other countries was, however, quite recent. 
In England and Scotland the first clear record is 1832. 

Alsike seed was distributed in the United States by the 
Patent Office in 1854, but it was probably introduced 
earlier. The plant was called alsike in Scotland as early 
as 1832. 

478. Adaptations. — Alsike clover is adapted to a wider 
range of both climatic and soil conditions than red clover, 
and nearly as great as that of white clover. It thrives 
especially well in cool climates with abundant moisture. 
It rarely winter-kills and often survives winter conditions 
that destroy red clover. On the whole it is, perhaps, as 
resistant to drought as red clover, but drought reduces 
its yield greatly. It endures both cold and heat better 
than red clover. 

It is not particular as to soil, provided abundant mois- 
ture is available, thriving well on clay, clay loams, sandy 
loams and muck soils. Unlike most clovers, it will thrive 
even where the soil is waterlogged. On this account it 
is also well adapted to growing under irrigation. 

Alsike is pecuhar in that it will thrive where red clover 
culture has dwindled on account of " clover sickness " ; 
a trouble that seems never to affect alsike, and which 
permits its frequent or almost continuous use on the 
same land. 

479. Characteristics of alsike clover. — It is a long- 
lived perennial, fields enduring 4 to 6 years in good soil. 



OTHER CLOVERS 407 

The stems are erect or ascending when crowded, but in 
isolated plants are spreading. The herbage is smooth and 
decidedly more leafy than red clover. The hay consists 
of about 60 per cent leaves and 40 per cent stems. Werner 
records 168 leaves on 8 branches, with a total flat surface 
of 504 square centimeters. Under favorable conditions 
it reaches a height of 2J feet in the mass, but is usually 
less. On account of the dense growth the lower leaves are 
apt to decay, especially where growing in wet land. The 
root system is relatively shallow, and on this account the 
plant does not well withstand drought. 

Hays at the Minnesota Experiment Station found that the 
tap root after one month was OJ inches long and after two 
months more than 2 feet. It does not remain prominent as 
many of the secondary roots become as large. The mass of 
roots is greater at the same age than that of red clover. 

The growth begins later in spring than red clover, 
and the blooming time is also somewhat later. Isolated 
plants often measure one foot in diameter, and in closely 
grazed pastures resemble white clover somewhat in habit. 

480. Regional strains. — There is but very little dif- 
ference in alsike, depending on the source from which seed 
is obtained, according to the results secured by Stebler 
and Volkart in Switzerland. Plots sown with American 
seed gave slightly better results the first year, but in the 
second year the results showed no definite superiority. 

In extensive trials at the Danish Experiment Station 
the relative yields of regional strains were as follows : 
Swedish, 100 ; Rhine, 98 ; English, 97 ; German, 91 ; 
Canadian, 83 ; American, 80. 

481. Importance. — Alsike clover has been growing 
in importance in America in recent years, mainly because 
it succeeds well on land that will no longer grow red clover 



408 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

on account of " clover sickness." Apart from this it is 
valuable for growing on land too wet for red clover and 
in mixed hay meadows because of its longer life. 

No accurate statistical information is available, but 
alsike is probably most abundantly grown in the following 
states and provinces ; namely, Ontario, Wisconsin, Mich- 
igan, Minnesota, Ohio, New York, Maryland, Virginia. 

482. Culture. — The culture of alsike differs but little 
from that of red clover, and it may be used for the same 
purposes. Seed is sown alone or with a nurse-crop, either 
in fall or in spring. In Europe winter seeding is a com- 
mon method. The rate of seeding is 8 to 12 pounds an 
acre, if seeded alone. Fields last well for two or three 
years and often for four or five years. Usually the sec- 
ond season gives the best yields. 

Alsike is, however, best adapted to growing in mixtures, 
especially in low or wet soils. In mixtures the alsike 
is abundant for two years and then rapidly disappears. 

483. Hay. — Alsike may be cut for hay over a longer 
period than red clover, as the main stems continue to 
grow with the production of new flowers. It is usually 
recommended to cut when in full bloom. Under favor- 
able circumstances two cuttings are obtained, but the 
second is nearly always smaller than the first. If the 
cutting of the first crop is delayed, the second is reduced. 

German records of hay yields are as follows : Pinckert, 
4000 to 5600 pounds to an acre ; Werner, 2600 to 4500 
pounds ; Schober, for the first cutting, 3000 pounds. 

Yields on an acre are recorded by American experiment 
stations as follows : Pennsylvania, 3956 pounds ; Kansas, 
3110 pounds; IlUnois, 2400 pounds; Michigan Upper 
Peninsula, 6800 pounds; Minnesota, 5860 pounds; 
Utah, 2780 pounds. 



OTHER CLOVERS 



409 



484. Seed-production. — Commercial seed of alsike 
clover is now produced mainly in Ontario, Wisconsin, 
Michigan, Ohio and Minnesota. It is also produced in 
most of the countries of northern Europe, but mainly 
for home consumption. Alsike usually yields less seed to 
the acre than either red clover or white clover. 

The seed yields are best on land that is moderately 
dry. The plants are mowed when the heads are brown 
and the seed in the dough stage, as later cutting involves 
loss by shattering. If not cut till ripe, it should be mowed 
when moist with dew. Great care is necessary in curing. 
Usually the first crop is harvested as seed, as in most of 
the regions where seed is grown the second crop does not 
have time to ripen. 

European seed yields are given by various authorities 
as ranging from 100 to 600 pounds to an acre, with about 
300 pounds as the average. 

In 9 cooperative trials in 
northern Wisconsin, the 
maximum yield was GJ 
bushels to an acre, and the 
average 3J bushels. 

485. Seed. — Alsike clo- 
ver seed (Fig. 45) may be 
distinguished from most 
other clovers by its small, j. .^ ., ., , , 

^ ' JbiG. 45. — Alsike ciov^er seeds. 

somewhat heart-shaped a, seeds showing variation in form 

seeds, and from white ^"^ !"'^f^ appearance, enlarged; 
' D, natural size of seeds. 

clover by its green color. 

Old seeds turn brown. Old seeds and screenings are 
sometimes used as adulterants. Trefoil may be, and 
timothy is commonly, present as an impurity. 

Good seed often attains a purity of 99 per cent and a 




410 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

viability as high. It will germinate in 2 to 6 clays, except- 
ing the hard seed, which is not as abundant as in red 
clover. Any of the ordinary noxious weed seeds may 
occur in alsike as impurities, but the most dangerous is 
dodder. The seed retains its viability well for two years, 
but then rapidly deteriorates. 

A bushel of seed weighs 60 to 66 pounds. One pound 
contains 700,000 to 718,000 seeds. 

486. Value for pasturage. — Alsike clover is often used 
in pasture mixtures for low, wet lands and the aftermath 
of hay fields is also utilized by pasturing. It is eagerly 
eaten by all farm animals, but with cattle and sheep the 
same precautions must be exercised to avoid bloating as 
with red clover and alfalfa. In closely grazed pastures, 
the stems are commonly spreading or nearly prostrate. 

Werner states that if fed green to horses, it is very 
laxative and results in much of the accompanying grain 
feed being voided undigested. 

HUNGARIAN CLOVER (Trifolium pannomcum) 

487. Hungarian clover is native from northern Italy 
to the Caucasus region of Asia Minor. It is a deep- 
rooted, long-lived perennial having much the same general 
habits as red clover, but the whole herbage is more hairy, 
and the white or yellowish flowers are in large ovate heads. 

Hungarian clover has been tested at many of the Ameri- 
can experiment stations, and in most cases has grown quite 
as well as red clover. It is not much cultivated in Europe, 
largely on account of the high cost of the seed, and for the 
same reason it has been tried only in an experimental 
way in America. The seed can rarely be purchased for 
less than $1 to $1.25 a pound. 



OTHER CLOVERS 411 

WHITE CLOVER (TrifoUum revens) 

488. Botany. — White clover is also known as Dutch 
clover and rarely as white trefoil. It is native throughout 
the temperate portion of Europe and Asia, while in Africa 
it occurs in the Azores. 

Numerous botanical varieties have been named, but 
none of these have been of any agricultural importance. 
A variety with purple foliage is sometimes cultivated 
as an ornamental. The only really distinct agricultural 
variety is Ladino clover. Individual plants of white 
clover vary greatly so that it would be possible to secure 
numerous varieties by selection. Work of this kind has 
been undertaken at several places. 

489. Description. — White clover is a long-lived but 
shallow-rooted perennial. It differs markedly from red 
and alsike clover in that the solid stems creep on the sur- 
face of the ground and root abundantly. On this account 
the growing point is seldom injured by mowing and graz- 
ing, and so the growth is not interrupted. When mowed, 
the hay consists entirely of leaves and flower stalks. The 
leaflets hold on much better in curing than do those of red 
clover. Single plants make a dense turf often a foot or 
more in diameter. 

Hays at the Minnesota Experiment Station found the 
tap root after one month to be 4| inches long and with 
numerous side roots, and when two months old to be 2 
feet long. At this time roots began to be found on the 
creeping branches. The tap root is said to die in one or 
two years. 

Werner calculated the surface area of the leaves from 
18 square centimeters, and found it to be 172 square 
centimeters. 



412 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

490. Agricultural history. — White clover seems to 
have been first cultivated in Holland, where it forms an 
important element in the pasture lands. The harvesting 
of the seed for sowing began about 1759 in Holstein and 
in 1764 in England, but was apparently still earlier in 
Holland. 

Jared Eliot mentions it in Massachusetts in 1747, 
and Kalm in his American travels a few years later found 
it common. Strickland, who traveled in the United 
States in 1794, writes as follows: — 

"In every part of America, from New Hampshire to Carolina, 
from the sea to the mountains, the land, whether calcareous or 
argillaceous, whether wet or dry, whether worn out or retaining 
its original fertility, from the summit of the Alleghany ridge to 
the sandy plains of Virginia, is spontaneously covered with white 
clover, growing frequently with a luxuriance and perfection 
that art can rarely equal in Europe. 

"I am told it is never met with far back in the woods, but 
immediately on their being cleared away, either by fire or other- 
wise, it takes possession of the ground ; which should prove that 
it was natural to it ; that the seed lies there, but cannot vegetate 
till the ground is cleared ; but again I have been told, that by 
some tribes of Indians it is called 'white man's foot grass,' from 
an idea that wherever he has trodden, it grows ; which should 
prove at least, that it had not been known in the country longer 
than the white man." 

491. Adaptations. — White clover is adapted to moist 
soils in nearly the whole temperate zone. In America its 
range is quite as wide as that of redtop, occurring north- 
ward to the limits of agriculture, and southward nearly 
to the Gulf of Mexico. It thrives best in regions of cool, 
moist climates. In the South, it persists through the hot 
weather of summer and becomes an important element 
of the pastures in winter. 



OTHER CLOVERS 413 

It will grow in any sort of soil, provided moisture is 
abundant, but it thrives best in loams and clay loams 
rich in humus, and fairly well drained. 

Through all the moisture areas in America, it is so well 
adapted that it holds its own spontaneously, and in old 
pastures gradually becomes more abundant unless the 
soil is poor or droughty. From the fact that cattle avoid 
the flowers, spontaneous reseeding is continuous. 

White clover also grows well in shady places and often 
makes up a considerable portion of the ground cover in 
orchards. 

Phosphatic fertilizers have a marked effect on white 
clover and where these are applied, the growth of the clover 
is usually greatly stimulated. Potash fertilizers also have 
a similar but less marked effect. 

492. Importance of white clover. — With the exception 
of blue-grass, and possibly Bermuda and redtop, white 
clover is the most important perennial pasture plant in 
America. It is nearly always an element in blue-grass 
pastures, but in the best blue-grass areas it is not abun- 
dant. Otherwise it is always an important element of 
mixed pastures, and in the cotton region is more impor- 
tant than blue-grass. 

White clover is said not to be nearly as liable as red 
clover to cause bloating, but as it is usually mixed with 
grasses, this is rarely apt to occur. Under some condi- 
tions it causes horses to " slobber." 

Apart from its use as pasture, white clover is very much 
used as an element in lawn mixtures. 

493. Seeding. — White clover is rarely sown except in 
mixtures with other grasses, and after it is once established 
usually maintains itself indefinitely. The usual rate of 
pure seeding recommended is 9 to 13 pounds to an acre. 



414 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



494. Yields. — White clover is so seldom grown pure 
as a hay crop that there are but scant data concerning its 
hay-yielding capacity. 

Friiwirth compared several strains both of ordinary 
and Ladino white clover in Austria in 1904 and 1905, 
with the following results, the weights being of the green 
clover : — 



Strain 



Colossal Ladino (Hohen- 
heim Seed) .... 

Colossal Ladino (Hohen- 
heim Seed) .... 

Colossal Ladino from 
Italy 

Carter's Common White 
Clover 

Carter's Giant White 
Clover 



Yield to a 
Hectare — 1904 



Kilograms 

39,239 

4 cuttings 

43,476 
4 cuttings 

34,447 
4 cuttings 

23,098 
3 cuttings 

23,469 
3 cuttings 



Yield to a 
Hectare — 1905 



Kilograms 

23,726 
3 cuttings 

27,442 

3 cuttings 

29,214 
3 cuttings 

15,917 
1 cutting 

15,158 
1 cutting 



Total 
Yield 



Kgm. 

62,965 
70,918 
63,958 
30,015 
38,627 



Stebler and Volkart report an experiment in Switzer- 
land in which white clover from various sources was grown 
in small plots. The Ladino clover plots were much in- 
jured by winter-killing. The others yielded hay at the 
following rates to a hectare in kilograms : English I, 5500 
America, 5000 ; Bohemian I, 4750 ; Russian I, 4500 
Bohemian II, 4250; Polish, 4000; GaUcian, 4000 
Russian II, 3700 ; New Zealand, 3500 ; English II, 2500. 

At the Danish Experiment Station various regional 



OTHER CLOVERS 415 

strains were grown two years and gave comparative yields 
as follows : Danish, 100 ; Ladino, 94 ; Holland, 92 ; 
American, 89 ; Pomeranian, 86 ; English, 80 ; Silesian, 
76; German, 73. 

In England a number of experiments have shown that 
if seed gathered from wild white clover plants be sown, 
the plants will persist much longer than if seed of the cul- 
tivated plants be sown. The cultivated white clover 
disappears in one or two years, while the wild white 
clover persists much longer — at least three to five years. 
The explanation given is that the cultivated white clover 
is less resistant to the rigorous springs and perhaps also 
to " clover sickness." 

Werner gives the hay yields to an acre in Germany as 
ranging from 1760 to 2640 pounds. 

The only American hay yield reported seems to be the 
following : Pennsylvania Experiment Station, 4133 
pounds to an acre. 

495. Pollination. — White clover has long been valued 
as a honey plant. If the visits of insects are prevented, 
only about one-tenth as much seed is produced, according 
to Darwin's experiments in England. 

Beal in Michigan secured only 5 seeds from covered 
heads, while 8 uncovered heads contained 236 seeds. 

In an experiment by Cook, 10 heads covered to exclude 
insects set no seeds, while 10 heads in the open produced 
541 seeds. 

496. Seed-production. — Commercial seed of white clo- 
ver is grown mainly in Europe (Bohemia, Poland, Russia, 
Germany, Holland, England), but some is produced in 
New Zealand. In America seed is produced in Ontario, 
Michigan, Wisconsin and western Washington. Ladino 
white clover seed comes wholly from Italy. 



416 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

The yield of seed to an acre in Europe seems to vary 
greatly. Werner gives it as 260 to 520 pounds ; Schwerz, 
as 350 pounds ; Sprengel, as 70 to 880 pounds ; Krafft, 
130 to 440 pounds. 

Werner gives the average yield of straw as about 1000 
pounds to an acre. 

When white clover is tall enough, it may be cut with 
a mower, preferably with a buncher attachment. If 
short, a light iron pan or a canvas is attached behind the 
mower and the cut clover removed by a helper with a 
pitch fork. 

497. Seed. — White clover seed is very similar to that 
of alsike, but is slightly smaller and pale yellow, pinkish 
or pale brown in color. It is seldom adulterated except 
with old seeds. 

The purity should reach 98 per cent and the viability 
99 per cent. Good seeds germinate in 2 to 6 days. The 
seed retains its viability well for two years and then 
gradually deteriorates. It may contain any of the ordi- 
nary weed seeds as impurities. 

A bushel weighs 60 to 63 pounds. One pound contains 
732,000 to 800,000 seeds. 

498. Ladino white clover. — This variety grows to 
about twice the size of ordinary white clover. In recent 
years various seedsmen have advertised it as Giant, 
Mammoth or Colossal White Clover. Botanically this 
variety has been called Trifolium repens latmn by Mc- 
Carthy. 

Ladino clover is abundantly cultivated on irrigated 
lands in Lombardy and derives its name from Lodi, where 
it was probably first developed. In the subalpine Italian 
valleys it is cut four to five times, and under these condi- 
tions outyields alfalfa. It is grown only on heavy lands 



OTHER CLOVERS 



417 



and is irrigated about every twelve days. ' According 

to Fruwirth the annual yield of hay in Italy is 7000 to 

10,500 pounds to an acre. It is 

usually sown with wheat, and the 

fields are maintained from 2 to 7 

years. 

This variety is considerably 
less cold-resistant than ordinary 
white clover, and was badly in- 
jured by winter cold in Swiss 
trials when ordinary white clover 
was uninjured. 

SWEET CLOVER (MelUotus alho) 

499. Botany and description. 

— Sweet clover (Fig. 46) is also 
known by many other names, 
among them Bokhara clover, 
melilot, white melilot, sweet 
melilot, Siberian melilot, bee 
clover, honey clover and galy- 
gumber. In the South it is now 
commonly called rnelilotus. It is 
native to temperate Europe and 
Asia as far east as Tibet, but is 
now spread over much of the 
United States and Canada, and 
also in the south temperate zone 

of both hemispheres. Several varieties have been de- 
scribed by botanists. 

Sweet clover is biennial in duration. The seedlings 
appear in early spring under natural conditions and grow 
2e 




Fig. 46. — Sweet clover. 



418 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

rather slowly the first season, but by fall have reached a 
height of 3 to 4 feet, and a few of the plants will bloom, at 
least in the South. By this time the root is large and fleshy 
and may extend to a depth of 6 feet. The second season's 
growth begins quite early, two weeks before that of alfalfa, 
which at first it closely resembles. The stems reach a 
height of 6 to 12 feet, and bear numerous white, sweet- 
scented flowers in narrow, erect racemes. The mature pods 
are reticulated and each bears a single seed. About the 
time the pods are well formed, the leaves begin to drop off. 

Every part of the plant contains a bitter-tasting sub- 
stance called cumarin, but which has a sweet, vanilla-like 
odor. The young shoots contain but little cumarin, and 
so are quite readily eaten by sheep and cattle, but the older 
stems and leaves are decidedly better. About the time 
sweet clover comes into bloom the stems rapidly become 
woody. After fruiting the plants die. 

Individual plants vary in their content of cumarin 
as well as in other characteristics, and some attempts 
have been made to improve the plant by selection, and 
particularly to secure a non-bitter variety. 

500. Adaptations. — So far as climate is concerned, 
sweet clover is adapted to southern Canada and practi- 
cally the whole of the United States, thriving equally well 
in semi-arid and in humid regions. 

Its soil relations are likewise very wide, as sweet clover 
will grow in practically all types from cemented clays and 
gravels to poor sand. It thrives best, however, on soils 
containing an abundance of lime. Sweet clover, on 
account of its deep root system, is able to withstand 
drought nearly as well as alfalfa. On the other hand, it 
can endure wet or poorly drained soils better than either 
red clover or alfalfa. 



OTHER CLOVEBS 419 

On account of its wide adaptations to both soils and 
climate, sweet clover is valuable to use in places where 
neither red clover nor alfalfa gives satisfactory results. 

501. Agricultural history. — Sweet clover was probably 
first cultivated in western Asia in the same general region 
where alfalfa and red clover were first used in agriculture, 
but neither in Asia nor Europe has the culture of the plant 
ever been of much importance. It was introduced into 
North America at least as early as 1739, when it was 
found by Clayton in Virginia. It was recorded from New 
England in 1785. For 20 years or more it has been 
utilized on the black calcareous soils of Mississippi and 
Alabama, where it grows luxuriantly. In more recent 
times it has been grown in many other states. 

It is a very aggressive plant, spreading along roads 
and railways and in irrigated sections along the ditches. 
Its spread has also been greatly increased by the habit of 
bee keepers of scattering seed in waste places so as to 
provide pasturage for bees. 

On account of its tendency to spread, sweet clover 
has at times been feared as a weed, but it rarely causes 
any trouble in cultivated land. 

502. Seeding. — Seeding may be done either by broad- 
casting or with a drill. Much of the seed is " hard " and 
does not germinate the first season. According to its 
viability, from 20 to 30 pounds of hulled seed should be 
used to an acre if broadcasted, or somewhat more if the 
seed is unhulled. Werner says the usual rate in Germany 
is 26 pounds, if broadcasted, and half this amount when 
drilled. 

503. Securing a stand. — On account of the way sweet 
clover spreads as a weed in waste ground, it has commonly 
been supposed that it would be exceedingly easy to obtain 



420 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

a stand on cultivated land. Numerous failures, however, 
show that this is not the case. Westgate's investigations 
have led to the conclusion that the main requirement is 
a thoroughly firmed seed bed. Another factor of impor- 
tance is inoculation, as sweet clover seems just as likely 
as alfalfa to fail where the proper nodule organisms are 
absent. 

Under natural conditions the pods of sweet clover fall 
on the ground in late summer and germinate in early 
spring, most of them remaining on the surface or being 
very shallowly embedded in the soil. On cultivated land 
good stands may be secured either by sowing in early fall 
or in spring. 

Fall seeding has the disadvantage that the root growth 
made the first season is not very large and consequently 
the plants the second season are not so vigorous. Further- 
more, the crop lasts but one growing season and not two, 
as is the case in spring planting. Fall planting in rye is 
the common method in Germany according to Werner, 
but in this case the crop is used mainly as green manure 
and plowed under after one season. This method has also 
been used occasionally with success in America, but sweet 
clover is nearly as apt to winter-kill if thus sown as is red 
clover. At Arlington Farm, Virginia, sweet clover was 
sown at various dates but the best results were secured 
when sown in May and in October. 

On the whole, spring seeding is to be preferred and this 
has generally proved satisfactory. 

Lloyd thinks the best method for Ohio and Kentucky is 
to sow from January to March either on wheat or on bare 
ground, the former being the common practice in Ken- 
tucky. In gullies the best method is to scatter sweet 
clover straw or ripe plants with the pods still attached. 



OTHER CLOVERS 421 

504. Relative proportions of tops and roots of sweet 
clover. — Hopkins at the Illinois Experiment Station 
determined the total yield of tops and roots to a depth of 
20 inches, when the plants were nearly mature, to be 
respectively 10,367 and 2410 pounds dry matter to an 
acre. 1809 pounds of the roots were in the first seven 
inches of soil and 601 pounds between 7 and 20 inches 
in depth. The tops contained 197 pounds of nitrogen 
and the roots 31 pounds. 

505. Utilization. — Sweet clover may be utilized either 
as pasturage, hay or green manure, and has been used 
both for soiling and for silage. 

While the herbage is bitter, it is much less so in early 
spring and most animals can be taught at this time to 
eat the plant. It may be thus used for all classes of farm 
animals, but is probably best for hogs and cattle. An 
acre of sweet clover will furnish pasturage through the 
season for about 20 young hogs, which apparently thrive 
quite as well as those on alfalfa or red clover. At the 
Iowa Experiment Station pigs made an average daily 
gain of 1.02 pounds on sweet clover as against 1.13 pounds 
on reel clover pasturage. In pasturing cattle care must 
be taken to avoid bloating. 

The use of sweet clover as a soiling crop is uncommon, 
but hogs eat it readily when thus fed. At the Ontario 
Experiment Station a yield of over 30 tons green matter 
to the acre was obtained. 

Sweet clover is mostly used as hay and should be cut 
just as the first blossoms appear, or a little before, as the 
stems thereafter rapidly become woody. In curing, much 
of the cumarin volatilizes so that the hay loses much of 
its bitter taste. 

If spring sown it is usually best to utihze sweet clover 



422 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

by pasturing the first season, or a crop of hay may be cut. 
The second season it is best cut for hay or for seed, or both. 
Too close cutting with the mower is harmful, as new shoots 
appear only from the stems and not from the crown as in 
alfalfa. 

Sweet clover is slightly more succulent than alfalfa and 
therefore a little more difficult to cure without undue loss 
of leaves. To avoid this the hay should be handled as 
little as possible, curing as much as possible in the windrows 
and then in small shocks. 

Lloyd states that it has been utilized as silage by Ohio 
farmers, and thus fed to sheep and cattle with good results. 

506. Advantages and disadvantages. — The chief disad- 
vantages of sweet clover are : — 

1. The cumarin content of the herbage, which makes 
animals avoid it until they have acquired a taste for its 
bitterness. On the other hand, this is said by some to 
be an advantage, as animals when first put in a pasture 
will not eat enough to cause bloating. 2. The rapidity 
with which the stems become woody, and the difficulty of 
curing. 

On the other hand, sweet clover will thrive on soils 
where neither red clover nor alfalfa will succeed, and there 
can be little doubt that it will become much more utilized, 
especially for pasturage on poor sandy soils. 

507. Yield. — Comparatively few data on the yields 
of sweet clover have been reported. In the North two 
cuttings may be secured the second year, both of hay or 
one of seed, while in the South three hay cuttings or two 
of hay and one of seed may be harvested. Tracy says that 
the three cuttings in the South will each average 1 to 2 
tons an acre. At the Alabama (Canebrake) Substa- 
tion the first season's spring-sown crop was at the rate of 



OTHER CLOVERS 423 

5056 pounds of hay to an acre, and in the second season 
three cuttings gave 6320 pounds to an acre. On another 
plot the results were respectively 6672 and 7048 pounds 
to an acre. 

At the Massachusetts Experiment Station, a plot 
seeded May 8 yielded September 9 at the rate of 2700 
pounds of hay an acre. The next season it was cut on 
June 24 and September 22, yielding respectively 2727 and 
1000 pounds an acre. 

At the Utah Experiment Station a yield of 7700 pounds 
of hay an acre was obtained. At the Wyoming Experiment 
Station yields of 8960 pounds and 7500 pounds of hay to 
an acre were secured. At the Ontario Experimental Farm 
a yield of 61,300 pounds green matter an acre is recorded. 

508. Seed-production. — Seed of sweet clover is pro- 
duced both in Europe and in the United States. Euro- 
pean commercial seed is always hulled. American seed 
is always in the hull and is produced in the South and in 
Kansas. On account of the limited demand until now the 
methods of seed-production have not been especially 
developed. The best yields of seed come from thin 
stands that have not been cut for hay, but satisfactory 
yields may be obtained from fields that have previously 
produced one cutting, or in the South two cuttings of 
hay. To avoid shattering the hard stems should be cut 
when damp, and cured in small shocks ; or it may be cut 
with a binder. The time to cut is when about three- 
fourths of the pods have turned dark. In western Kan- 
sas it is sometimes harvested with a header and cured 
in medium-sized shocks. In the South the seed pods 
are usually removed by flailing, but in the West grain 
thrashers are now used. The yields in Kansas ar.e said 
to be from 2 to 8 bushels to an acre. 



424 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 





& (if 

b 



Fig. 47. — Seeds of sweet clover, a, 
seeds showing variation in form and size ; 
b, natural size of seeds ; c, a pod of sweet 
clover. 



509. Seed. — The seeds of sweet clover (Fig. 47) are 
yellowish brown, much like those of alfalfa, but the sur- 
face is duller and slightly uneven. By crushing, the 
vanilla-like odor of cumarin is evident, at once distin- 
guishing it from all 
similar seeds except 
other species of Melilo- 
his. Commercial seed 
usually has a high de- 
gree of purity and 
should approximate 
100 per cent. The 
germination, however, 
is very variable on ac- 
count of ''hard" seed. 
In 22 southern-grown 
samples, the average 

proportion of hard seed was 60 per cent, and in an equal 
number of northern-grown samples, 43 per cent. Im- 
ported seed showed but 12 per cent hard seeds in 28 
samples. The probable explanation of the better quality 
of the European seed is that most of it was one year old 
or more. The seed is reported to have remained alive in 
some cases for 77 years. According to Werner, one pound 
contains 235,000 seeds. 

510. Related species. — Various other species of Meli- 
lotus have been more or less utilized agriculturally, includ- 
ing M. officinalis, M. indica, M. altissima, M. gracilis, 
M. speciosa and M. coerulea. The first two are abundantly 
and the third sparingly introduced into America. The 
last is really a species belonging to Trigonella. 

Melilotus officinalis, official melilot, is a biennial yellow- 
flowered species. It is about two weeks earlier than 



OTHER CLOVERS 425 

Bokhara clover, much less leafy and smaller in size, grow- 
ing but 3 to 7 feet tall. It has spread over much the same 
territory as Bokhara clover. In New Jersey, it is becom- 
ing the dominant species. Some commercial seed is grown 
in Kentucky. It is from this species that cumarin was 
secured for medicinal use in olden times. 

Melilotus indica {Melilotus parviflora) , the " sour 
clover " of California and Arizona, is an annual species 
with small yellow flowers. It is called King Island melilot 
from the fact that it was introduced on King Island near 
Tasmania about 1906 and rapidly spread over the sandy 
lands of this island, resulting in the establishment of a 
great dairy industry. 

In the United States, it is most common in the South, 
being abundant about Charleston, New Orleans and in 
southern California. In the citrus regions of California, 
it has been used in recent years as an orchard green 
manure crop, and commercial seed is now produced in that 
state. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 

The annual clovers and clover-like plants are much less 
important agriculturally than the perennials. They are 
variously used as hay, pasture and green manure crops. 
Their greatest use is as winter cover crops. 



CRIMSON CLOVER (Trifolium incarnatum) 

511. Botany. — Crimson clo- 
ver (Fig. 48) is also known from 
the color of its flowers as scarlet, 
carnation and incarnate clover ; 
also from its reputed origin as 
German, Italian and French 
clover. 

The plant is native to south- 
ern Europe, occurring as far 
north as England. The wild 
plant (variety Molinerii) has 
yellow-white flowers, except one 
form in which they are rose- 
colored. The cultivated plant 
is taller, more vigorous and less 
hairy than the wild. 

512. Agricultural history. — 
Crimson clover was probably 
first cultivated in southern 
France and adjacent Switzer- 

426 




Fig. 48. — Crimson clover. 



CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 427 

land. It was cultivated in Germany as early as 1796. 
At the present time it is grown in France, Switzer- 
land, northern Italy, Austria, the wine districts of Ger- 
many and in southern England. The earliest established 
record of its culture in the United States is 1818, when 
it was introduced by Bedingfield Hands of Chestertown, 
Pennsylvania, and distributed among his friends. It was 
widely distributed by the United States Patent Office 
in 1855, but its culture did not assume much importance 
till about 1880. 

513. Description. — Crimson clover is an annual plant, 
reaching under favorable conditions a height of three feet. 
The root system penetrates at least as deep, as plants 
sown at the North Dakota Experiment Station in spring 
were found to have roots three feet deep by August 22. 
At the Delaware Experiment Station the tops and roots 
on an acre were determined to contain respectively 5372 
and 413 pounds of dry matter. The stems are spreading 
or ascending where the plants are isolated, but more 
nearly erect where they are crowded. When sown in fall, 
the young plants are apt to be single stemmed. Well- 
grown plants from fall-sown seed may have as many as 
20 stems and 50 or more flower spikes. The flower clus- 
ters are dense cylindric or slightly tapering spikes, IJ 
to 2 inches long, the flowers usually brilliant crimson, but 
rarely white, yellowish, rose or variegated. 

514. Adaptations. — Crimson clover is normally a 
winter annual and is, therefore, primarily adapted to 
regions where the average minimum temperature is not 
fatal. In Germany Werner thinks this temperature is 
about 4° below zero Fahrenheit. By selective elimina- 
tion, however, hardier strains can undoubtedly be secured, 
as J. H. Hale grew for a period of years in Connecticut 



428 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIB CULTURE 

a strain that he had thus selected. Ordinary crimson 
clover, however, usually winter-kills in the states north 
of New Jersey and west of the Alleghany Mountains. 

Crimson clover has been successfully grown in Georgia, 
Alabama, Mississippi and Tennessee, but the prevailing 
dry autumns in these states make it difficult to secure a 
catch. In the moister region near the Gulf of Mexico, it 
succeeds well, but is little used. 

In Oregon, Washington and British Columbia west of 
the Cascade Mountains, the conditions are also very favor- 
able to crimson clover, but it has never been much used. 

For fall sowing the important requisites are a mild winter 
climate and comparatively frequent rainfalls in late sum- 
mer and early fall so that the plants can get well started. 

As a spring-sown crop, crimson clover has succeeded 
in Michigan and North Dakota, but it is doubtful if it 
can compete with red and alsike clover used in this manner. 

Crimson clover shows no very marked soil preferences, 
succeeding both on sandy and clayey soils, whether cal- 
careous or not, so long as they are well drained. It does 
not succeed well on poor sandy soils and demands a good 
humus content for its best development. On muck soils 
it is said not to succeed well. 

Crimson clover is well adapted to withstand shade, 
and so is often sown in orchards and with other crops. 

Crimson clover apparently never has been troubled in 
America by " clover sickness," jt having been sown on 
some farms continuously for at least ten years. Werner 
writes that in Germany it should not be again sown on the 
same ground until four to six years have elapsed. 

515. Importance. — Crimson clover is grown in the 
United States mainly in New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland 
and Virginia, but its culture is increasing in the Carolinas. 



CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 429 

In these states it is well adapted both to the sandy soils 
of the coastal area and the clayey soils of the Piedmont. 
Elsewhere in the United States it is but little grown. 
In the states above mentioned, the total area planted in 
1909 was about 50,000 acres, basing this on the assump- 
tion that crimson clover was f of the " clover " acreage 
in Delaware ; i in New Jersey, J in Maryland, J in Vir- 
ginia and J in North Carolina. 

516. Variability and agricultural varieties. — Crimson 
clover is conspicuously variable in two respects ; namely, 
the color of the corolla and the life period. In a single 
field of crimson clover, plants may be found with white, 
rose, crimson and variegated crimson and white flowers. 
As crimson clover is mainly self-pollinated, such varieties 
are easily selected and established. 

At the present time European seedsmen offer five 
varieties ; namely, extra early, ordinary, late and extra 
late crimson-flowered and late white-flowered. 

517. Seeding. — The rate of seeding varies from 12 
to 20 pounds to an acre, 15 pounds being the usual rate. 
One pound contains about 120,000 seeds, so that at the 
ordinary rate 45 seeds to the square foot are sown. In 
Europe the rate of seeding seems to be much higher, as 
Werner recommends 22 to 40 pounds if broadcasted, and 
18 to 26 pounds if drilled. 

Crimson clover is sown either by broadcasting or by 
drilling. Shallow seeding seems to be most satisfactory, 
but no critical experiments have been recorded. One 
inch depth in sandy soil and one-half inch in clay soils is 
probably a good general rule. 

Home-grown seed in the hull is often sown by farmers, 
and the belief prevails that such seed is more likely to give 
a good stand than the hulled seed. 



430 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

518. Time of sowing. — In the latitude of Maryland, 
crimson clover may be sown any time from midsummer 
until October. Midsummer sowings are apt to be injured 
by heat, and late sowings to be winter-killed. So far as 
temperature is concerned, the best time is probably late 
summer, which will permit about ten weeks' growth before 
the first frost. Ample moisture at the time of seeding 
and while the plants are young is quite as important as 
the temperature relations, and lack of timely rains results 
in more failures to secure stands than any other one 
cause. A common saying among farmers is that " crimson 
clover should be sown between showers." 

In the Northern States and Canada, crimson clover 
may be sown in spring. Spring sowing is used to some 
extent in Europe and may be practicable for some pur- 
poses in America. A nurse-crop cannot be used with 
spring sowings, however, as the clover grows too rapidly. 

519. Methods of sowing. — Crimson clover is sown in 
many different ways, whether grown primarily for hay, 
pasture or green manure. The principal methods are 
sowing alone ; sowing in an intertilled crop ; and sowing 
mixed with a small grain — wheat, rye, barley or winter 
oats for hay. 

More crimson clover is probably sown in cultivated 
rows of corn than in any other way. This is commonly 
done by broadcasting at the time of the last cultivation 
of corn in Maryland, but farther south later sowing is 
more desirable to avoid injury to the crimson clover by 
hot summer weather. The clover matures early enough 
the next season so that the hay crop can be removed in 
time to plant corn again ; south of central Delaware the 
crimson clover may be harvested for seed and still leave 
time to grow a crop of corn. 



CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 431 

In North Carolina successful stands of crimson clover 
have been secured by sowing in cotton in August, but it 
is difficult to cover the seeds without injuring the opened 
cotton. Among other intertilled crops in which crimson 
clover may be sown are soybeans, tobacco, cantaloupes 
and all vegetables except root crops, as the digging of these 
necessarily destroys much of the clover. 

Crimson clover is most often sown alone, whether in- 
tended for use as green manure, hay or seed-production. 
In recent years it has been much grown in mixtures with 
wheat, oats, rye or barley. Sometimes only a small 
amount of the grain crop is added so as to prevent the 
clover from lodging, but more often a half seeding of the 
grain is used, and the resulting hay crop is much larger 
than that of clover alone. The common rate of seeding in 
such a mixture is 15 pounds of the clover seed and 30 
pounds of the grain seed to the acre. 

Crimson clover may be sown with buckwheat, in 
midsummer or even later, provided there is time for the 
buckwheat to mature before frost. The buckwheat must 
be seeded lightly, otherwise the clover may be destroyed 
by the dense shade. In place of buckwheat, cowpeas 
may be used, and either cut for hay before frost or allowed 
to remain on the ground. 

520. Time to cut for hay. — Crimson clover should 
preferably be cut for hay just as soon as the lower flowers 
on the most advanced heads have faded. If cutting be 
delayed beyond this, the hairs on the calyx and elsewhere 
become hard and stiff, so that if the hay be fed to horses, 
the hairs are likely to form compact " hair-balls " in the 
intestines, which nearly always result in death. The 
danger is generally believed to be much lessened by feeding 
crimson clover mixed with other roughage, or by wetting 



432 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

the clover hay about 12 hours before feeding so that the 
hairs become soft. Such hair-balls rarely, if ever, form 
in cattle and sheep, so that late cut hay may be safely 
utilized as feed for such animals. If cut before bloom, the 
yield is much less and the curing more difficult. 

521. Yields. — The yield of hay from crimson clover 
where the stand is good ranges from 1500 to 6000 pounds 
an acre, probably averaging about 2500 pounds. 

Yields reported by experiment stations are as follows 
in pounds to an acre : Pennsylvania, 2154 to 5121 ; New 
Jersey, 2460 to 4600; South Carolina, 3600; Florida, 
about 4000; Alabama, 4057; Arizona, 145 to 570; 
Oregon, 13,340 ; Vermont, spring-sown, 4550 ; Michigan, 
spring-sown, 4400. 

Mixtures usually yield more heavily. Thus, at the 
Alabama Experiment Station the following results were 
secured : — 

Crimson clover seeded alone 2836 lb. 

Crimson clover seeded in mixtm^e : — 

Barley and crimson clover . 3695 lb. 

Wheat and crimson clover 3771 lb. 

Oats and crimson clover 4228 lb. 

522. Other uses of crimson clover. — Besides being 
used as a hay crop, crimson clover is extensively used for 
pasturage, to a slight extent for soiling and very much 
as a soil improver both in orchards and elsewhere. 

Crimson clover will furnish a small amount of pasturage 
in fall, especially for hogs and calves. In the spring it 
comes on earlier than other clovers, and under the most 
favorable conditions may be grazed for a period of eight 
weeks. The usual precautions must be taken to avoid 
bloating. 

Crimson clover may also be utilized as soiling, and will 



CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 433 

furnish succulent green feed for a period of 2 to 5 weeks, 
especially if both early and late varieties be used. 

As a green manure or cover crop, crimson clover is 
especially valuable because of the early date at which it 
can be plowed under, thus permitting corn and other crops 
to be planted in time. 

Only two other legumes can be used in the same way and 
for the same purpose as crimson clover, — yellow trefoil 
and hairy vetch. Trefoil does not produce nearly so 
much herbage ; while hairy vetch does not mature as 
early in spring, and the cost of seeding is considerably 
higher. 

523. Seed-production. — Crimson clover is harvested 
for seed as soon as perfectly ripe. As the seeds shatter 
easil}^, it is best to mow early in the morning or when 
slightly moist, using either a mowing machine or a self- 
rake reaper. In drying, care is necessary to avoid loss by 
shattering, and to this end it is usually cured in small 
bunches. If the clover becomes wet from rain, the seed 
will sprout promptly, and this may be a source of serious 
loss. The unhulled seed may be secured by thrashing or 
by flailing. 

To harvest seed for home use, there has long been used 
a device consisting essentially of a platform or box on the 
front of which is a comb, that may be raised or lowered, 
the whole mounted on wheels. This device is used when 
the seeds are ripe and dry. The most efficient of these 
combs is said to secure about 90 per cent of the seed. 

The yield is said to average about 6 bushels to an acre. 
In Europe the yields are given as 250 to 450 pounds to an 
acre. 

524. Seed. — Seed of crimson clover (Fig. 49) is larger 
and more rounded than most other clovers. Fresh seed 

2f 




434 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

is shiny and somewhat pinkish in color. Old seed be- 
comes dull and brownish. Rarely it may be adulterated 

with red clover screenings, and 
sometimes there is considerable 
trefoil present. 

Good, fresh commercial seed 
should be 99 per cent pure and 
have a viability of 98-99 per cent. 
Fig. 49. — Seeds of crim- It loses its viability rapidly, so 

son clover (enlarged and that SCcd twO years old is WOrth- 
natural size). . ^ ^ i 

less. Ihere is never much hard 
seed, and all the good seed should germinate in 2 to 6 
days. 

Troublesome weed seeds that may be present as impuri- 
ties are Canada thistle, wild carrot, yellow dock, buck- 
horn and oxeye-daisy. 

The legal weight of a bushel is 60 pounds, but it may 
weigh up to 63 pounds. One pound contains 118,000 to 
150,000 seeds. 

SHAFTAL OR SCHABDAR (TrifoUuni suaveoletis) 

525. Shaftal or Persian clover is an annual, native to 
central Asia. It is characterized by hollow stems, which 
lodge easily ; smooth herbage ; small heads of pink, very 
fragrant flowers ; and pods inclosed in a much swollen 
calyx. 

This clover is cultivated under irrigation in Persia and 
northwest India for forage. In Europe it has been cul- 
tivated many years as an ornamental. Seeds of it some- 
times occur as an impurity in crimson clover seed from 
France, and thus occasional plants may be found in crim- 
son clover fields. Commercial seed in small quantities 
can be obtained in Persia. 



CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 435 

While shaftal withstands the winter in Maryland when 
fall sown, its lodging habit makes it less desirable than 
crimson clover. It has given excellent results under 
irrigation in Arizona as a winter crop. 

BERSEEM ( Trifolium alexandrinum) 

526. Berseem is an annual white-flowered clover, much 
cultivated in the valley of the Nile in lower Egypt, where 
about 1,500,000 acres are grown as a winter annual under 
irrigation. It is probably native to this region, but the 
species is not known in a wild state. There are three 
varieties grown : the Fachl, cut but once ; the Saidi, cut 
twice ; and the Muscowi, cut as many as four times. 

It was introduced into the United States in 1900 and 
widely tested. As it is destroyed when the temperature 
falls to about 18° F., it can be grown in most of the United 
States only as a summer annual. For that purpose it 
cannot compete with other clovers — especially red and 
alsike — as it does not yield as well and must be planted 
each season. 

In the extreme southern portions of the United States, 
from California to Texas, berseem succeeds well enough 
under irrigation, but cannot compete with alfalfa. As a 
winter crop to grow in short rotations, it may eventually 
be utilized in this region. 

The seed of berseem is cheap, but is likely to contain 
wild mustard seed as an impurity. 

YELLOW TREFOIL (Medtcago lupulina) 

527, Yellow trefoil is also known as black medick and 
nonesuch, and rarely as hop clover, the last term being 
more properly appHed to yellow-flowered clovers. Yel- 



436 



FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 




Fig. 50. — Seeds of yellow trefoil, a, 
seeds showing variation in form and size ; 
b, natural size of seeds ; c, oval form of 
trefoil seeds indicated ; d, a pod of trefoil. 



low trefoil has become rather notorious from the fact 
that its seed (Fig. 50) has been much used to adulterate 
alfalfa seed, but nevertheless the plant has some merit as 
a forage crop. It is native to Europe and Asia, but has 

become thoroughly es- 
tablished from Ontario 
to the Gulf of Mexico, 
and is also common on 
the Pacific Coast. Its 
wide naturalization in- 
dicates its wide adapta- 
tion. 

Of its wide value in 
Europe Stebler and 
Schroter write : " Al- 
though neither very productive nor persistent, still on 
many soils where red clover is not successful this plant 
becomes valuable because its fodder is so nutritive. It is 
especially valuable in pastures. Because of the diffuse 
stems and their spreading habit, yellow trefoil is usually 
sown in mixtures with clovers and grasses, and thus forms 
excellent pasturage. As the plant itself only lasts for 
one or two years, it ought to be used in lays of short dura- 
tion. In mixtures on warm and favorable soils, it reaches 
maturity and propagates by sowing its own seeds." 

The plant is normally an annual, but with perennating 
forms. Its small size is the principal objection to its 
culture, but where it once becomes established, it makes 
a valuable addition to pastures, even on very poor soils. 
Planted thickly in late summer or early fall, the plants 
will make a dense mass of herbage 10 to 16 inches deep 
by the following May or June. In this way it has much 
the same use as crimson clover, but it will withstand much 



CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 437 

greater cold, more even than red clover. Mixtures with 
crimson clover are very satisfactory, but probably do not 
increase the total yield. Under like conditions, yellow 
trefoil will probably not yield more than three-fourths 
as much as crimson clover, but with its wider range of 
adaptation and cheap seed should fill a niche in American 
agriculture. Difficulty in establishing trefoil may be ex- 
pected until the ground has become inoculated for it. 

Werner gives the average seed yield as 440 to 700 
pounds an acre. The commercial supply has been scarce 
in recent years, perhaps because the practice of using it 
as an adulterant of alfalfa has greatly diminished. 

BUR CLOVERS {Medicago spp.) 

528. Bur clovers. — There are about 40 species of these 
plants native to the countries about the Mediterranean Sea. 
Most of these, probably all, are annuals, springing up in 
the fall, and maturing in early summer. They are all 
procumbent or prostrate plants when growing isolated, 
but if planted thickly, make a mass of herbage 8 to 18 
inches deep. The species are distinguished largely by 
the burs or pods, which show a wide variation in size and 
form. 

In America two species have thus far become used in 
agriculture ; namely, the toothed bur clover {Medicago 
hispida) and the spotted bur clover {Medicago arahica), 
the former especially in California, the latter mainly in 
the Southern States. 

Among the other species that are likely to become of 
importance are button clover {Medicago orbicularis) and 
snail clover {Medicago scutellata), both with large smooth 
pods. 

Toothed bur clover. — Toothed bur clover is also known 



438 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

as California bur clover, as it is especially abundant in 
that state. It was early introduced into California, where 
it has become widespread and proven valuable for pastur- 
age both on cultivated and on range lands. The same 
species is also abundant in Argentina, Chile and Australia. 
The burs get caught in the fleece of sheep, and in recent 
years seed has been saved and cleaned in Europe from 
the rubbish taken out of wool. 

While toothed bur clover is most abundant in Califor- 
nia, it also occurs in Washington and Oregon, and to some 
extent in the Southern States. In the latter region it is 
not as well adapted as spotted bur clover, and instances 
are known where the toothed bur clover was winter-killed 
when the spotted was uninjured. 

Toothed bur clover can hardly be called a cultivated 
crop, but where it persists it furnishes a large amount of 
pasturage, both on cultivated and on uncultivated land. 
Even after the burs are ripe and dry they are eaten eagerly 
by sheep. A considerable amount of bur clover seed is 
harvested incidentally with wheat in California, and from 
this source all of the American-grown seed is obtained. 

There are several varieties of toothed bur clover, differ- 
ing in the character of the fruits, two of them having spine- 
less burs ; namely, conjinis with 3 coils, and reticulata 
with 5 coils to the pod. 

Spotted hur clover. — Spotted bur clover differs from 
toothed bur clover in having a dark purple spot on each 
leaflet, and in the pods being beset with longer and softer 
bristles and the edges of the coils furrowed. A spineless 
variety, inermis, is also known. 

Spotted bur clover is less abundant in California and 
more plentiful in the Southern States than toothed bur 
clover. This may be partly incidental to earlier introduc- 



CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 439 

tion, but apparently spotted bur clover is better adapted 
to the conditions in the Southern States. It is quite 
certain that it is more resistant to winter cold, withstand- 
ing a temperature of about 15° F. without injury. Its 
area of usefulness extends from North Carolina to Arkansas 
and southward, both on sandy and clayey soils. 

Bur clover maj^be sown anytime from August to Novem- 
ber. If the seed is hulled, it should be sown at the rate of 
15 pounds an acre and harrowed in lightly. In the bur 
the seed weighs 10 pounds to the bushel, and two bushels 
should be sown to the acre, harrowing or brushing it in 
lightly. When sown in the bur, the resultant plants are 
nearly always abundantly noduled, but this is seldom the 
case when hulled seed is planted in new ground. Bur 
clover reseeds itself readily, even if the ground is plowed in 
late May or June for a summer crop, but it is never trouble- 
some as a weed. Its use for winter pasturage in the South 
is increasing. 

Commercial seed of spotted bur clover occurs as yet 
only in the bur and often contains much straw and other 
trash. The seeds are raked up from the ground after the 
plants have become thoroughly dry so that the pods readily 
detach. 

DAKOTA VETCH (Hosackia americana or Lotus americanus) 

529. Dakota vetch is a close relative of bird's-foot 
trefoil and has been called prairie bird's-foot trefoil. It 
is native to the western United States from Minnesota 
and Arkansas west to the Pacific. It is especially abun- 
dant in the Pacific States. The plant is a slender-stemmed, 
loosely branched annual, growing 12 to 24 inches high ; 
leaves trifoliolate ; flowers small, yellow and red ; pods 
linear, pendent. 



440 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Dakota vetch has long been recognized by cattlemen as 
an excellent native forage plant and on this account was 
recommended for cultivation by the South Dakota Experi- 
ment Station in 1894. The plant and yield is so small, 
however, that the returns do not warrant its culture. A 
large percentage of the seed — at least of the California 
form — is hard and does not germinate. 



CHAPTER XIX 

PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 

Peas are grown more extensively for the seed than for 
the herbage. In mixed cultures, however, especially with 
oats, peas make an excellent quality of hay. The seeds 
are valuable both for human food and as feed for 
domestic animals. In contrast with the various kinds of 
beans, peas never cause digestive disturbances. 

PEA (Pisum sativum) 

530. Botany and history of the pea. — The pea is 

native to the Mediterranean region of southern Europe 
and north Africa, extending eastward to the Himalayas. 
Its culture is in all probability very ancient, seeds having 
been found in the remains of the lake dwellings in Switzer- 
land. De Candolle, who considers the field pea distinct 
from the garden pea, inclines to the belief that the culture 
of the former is not ancient. 

It is customary to distinguish agriculturally between 
the garden pea {Pisum hortense) and the field or Can- 
ada pea (Pisum arvense), but whatever distinguishing 
characteristics are used, there are all possible intergrades 
in the long series of cultivated varieties. In general the 
term field pea is restricted to those having somewhat angled, 
brown to black or marbled or speckled seeds, and colored 
flowers; garden pea, to those having white flowers and 

441 



442 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



round yellow seeds. But several varieties are used both 
for vegetables and for forage. 

A third group of varieties, the sugar peas (variety 
saccharatum) , is distinguished by having broad, flat, tender 

pods, which are used 
as a vegetable after 
the manner of snap 
beans. Most of these 
have the pods green, 
but in one variety 
they are yellow. 

531. Description. 
— The pea (Fig. 51) 
is an annual plant 
with hollow stems 
varying in length 
from Ij to 10 feet, 
according to variety 
and conditions. The 
entire herbage is pale 
and glaucous. The 
stems are weak, usu- 
ally decumbent at 
base and much in- 
clined to lodge. The 
leaves are pinnate 
with 1 to 3 pairs of 
leaflets and one or more pairs of tendrils besides the tip of 
the rachis, by which the plant clings to supports. The 
stout, axillary peduncles each bear 1 to 3 flowers. The 
pods are green or rarely yellow. 

The root system is rather shallow, not exceeding three 
feet, but nevertheless the pea is fairly resistant to drought. 




Fig. 51. — Field pea. 



PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 443 

532. Adaptations. — Field peas are adapted only to 
moderate temperatures ; and while they will withstand 
heavy frosts, they quickly succumb to high temperatures, 
especially if combined with humidity. As their period 
of growth is short, — 60 to 100 days for hay, 80 to 120 days 
for seed, — they may be grown as summer crops in the 
North, winter crops in regions where the temperature 
rarely falls below freezing and spring or fall crops in 
intermediate areas. The non-adaptation of field peas to 
heat is frequently seen as far north as Maryland, where 
the crop is often severely injured by hot weather in May. 
Their preference for a cool growing season has led to their 
being much more extensively grown in Canada than in the 
United States. 

Field peas are not particular in regard to humidity, 
thriving well both in humid and in semi-arid regions, but 
they succeed best in regions of moderate rainfall. 

They do best on loams or clay loams, but will succeed 
on most soil types, if well drained. Like the majority 
of leguminous plants, they prefer an abundance of lime in 
the soil. 

533. Importance. — Field peas are more important in 
Ontario, Michigan and Wisconsin than in any other 
states or provinces. To some extent they are grown in 
most of the northern tier of states in the Union and in 
all the southern provinces of Canada. In 1909, there 
were in Ontario, 258, 461 acres ; in Michigan, 94,932 acres ; 
and in Wisconsin, 78,017 acres. 

534. Agricultural varieties. — The varieties of field 
peas are very numerous, probably numbering over 100 
and not including any of the more numerous sorts of 
garden peas. 

Varieties differ in such characters as degree of earliness. 



444 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

height, color of flowers, size of pods and especially in the 
size, shape and color of the seeds. The seeds may be 
either globose or more or less shrunken and angular. The 
angular form is due to a higher sugar content and conse- 
quent greater shrinkage in drying. The color of the seeds 
when of a single tint may be yellow, pea-green, brown or 
black. Yellow or green seeds may be marbled with brown, 
or speckled with blue-black or brown or both marbled and 
speckled. The embryos are yellow in yellow seeds, and 
green in green seeds. 

The earliest varieties will mature seed in 73 days in 
Canada, while the very late ones require 109 days. 

Among the better known varieties are the following : — 

Arthur. — This variety has round yellow seeds of 
medium size. It is an early, productive variety which 
originated at Ottawa, Canada. It is now one of the 
most important varieties in Canada. 

Golden Vi7ie. — The Golden Vine, also called the French 
June, is perhaps the most widely grown variety of field 
pea in the United States. It is a medium-early pea, hav- 
ing a white blossom and small round cream-colored seeds, 
and makes good yields of both forage and seed. 

Marrowfat. — This name has been loosely applied to a 
class of large cream-seeded varieties rather than to a 
definite variety. This variety has a white blossom and 
is medium to late, maturing about a week later than the 
Golden Vine, and makes large quantities of forage with 
fair yields of seed. 

Canadian Beauty. — An early variety resembling Mar- 
rowfat, maturing at about the same time as the Golden Vine. 
It makes a large growth of vine and fair yields of seed. 

Blackeye Marroivfat. — The seeds of the Blackeye Mar- 
rowfat are similar in appearance to the regular Marrowfat 



PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 445 

except for the black hilum. This variety matures a trifle 
earUer than the Marrowfat and about five days later than 
the Golden Vine. 

Prussian Blue. — One of the '^ blue "-seeded forms of 
the field pea, the seeds being round, smooth and bluish 
green. This also has a white blossom and is rather late, 
maturing about eleven days after the Golden Vine. It 
makes good yields of both forage and seed. 

Wisconsin Blue. — A ^' blue "-seeded form similar to the 
Prussian Blue, but about four days later in maturing. In 
yield of forage and seed it is about equal to the Prussian 
Blue, but it has, perhaps, a trifle heavier growth of vine. 

Early Britain. — The season of maturity of the Early 
Britain is about the same as that of the Golden Vine. 
The blossoms, however, are colored and the seeds large 
and of a brown color. This variety, although not so well 
known as the Golden Vine and the Marrowfat, is valuable 
from both seed and forage standpoints. 

As a result of extensive tests in Canada, the following 
varieties proved in the order given the most satisfactory 
for each province : — 

For Ontario. — Arthur, Chancellor, Golden Vine, White 
Marrowfat, Prussian Blue, Wisconsin Blue and Enghsh Grey. 

For Manitoba. — Arthur, Chancellor, Golden Vine, Enghsh 
Grey and Prussian Blue. 

For Saskatchewan. — Arthiu*, Chancellor, Golden Vine and 
Prussian Blue. 

For Alberta. — English Grey, Arthur, Chancellor and Golden 
Vine. 

For British Columbia. — Chancellor, Arthur, Golden Vine 
and Prussian Blue. 

For Nova Scotia. — Arthur, White Marrowfat, Daniel 
O'Rourke, Golden Vine and Prussian Blue. 

For Prince Edward Island. — Arthur, Prussian Blue, White 
Marrowfat and Golden Vine. 



446 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

New varieties that have succeeded well in the western 
United States are Concordia from Sweden, with large, 
round, yellow seeds ; Amraoti from India, with small, 
smooth, pale yellow seeds; Bangalia from India, with 
dull green, somewhat shrunken seeds ; and Kaiser from 
Germany, with grayish seeds speckled with blue. The 
last named is very rehable and will withstand heat and 
humidity combined better than any other variety known. 

535. Seeding. — Peas should be sown in temperate 
regions as early in the spring as danger from heavy frosts 
is over, and in tropical or subtropical regions as soon as 
the cool season begins, or at least in time to mature before 
very hot weather. In the Southern States it is sometimes 
possible to sow in fall and make a hay crop before winter. 
In the North fall preparation of the soil is desirable so 
that the peas may be sown in early spring. Where early 
and late seedings have been compared, the yield is usually 
highest from the early plantings and falls off quite rapidly 
in the later plantings. 

The rate of seeding an acre varies from '1| bushels 
for varieties with small seeds to 3 bushels for those with 
very large seeds. 

The seed may be sown broadcast or drilled. The latter 
method is preferable on account of the more even germina- 
tion. When broadcasted by hand, they may be plowed 
under Ughtly, or, if sown on freshly plowed soil, covered 
with a disk or drag harrow. In Ontario experiments ex- 
tending over a period of more than 4 years, the yield of 
peas was slightly larger when the seed was drilled than 
when broadcasted, but in no case was the difference as 
great as 10 per cent. 

The seed should be covered to a depth of IJ to 3 inches, 
depending on the nature of the soil. At the Michigan 



PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 



44T 



Experiment Station peas germinated best when planted 
4 inches deep. Even when planted 8 inches deep, some 
of the plants emerged. 

536. Development of the plant. — Stewart at the Utah 
Experiment Station has made a careful study of the com- 
position of the Golden Vine pea at various stages of 
growth, w^hen grown under irrigation. Some of his results 
are shown in the following table : — 



Date and Stage of 
Cutting 



June 19 — 9 inches high 

June 26 — 

July 3 — 

July 10 — early bloom 

July 17 — 

July 24 — pods filled 

July 31 — pods ripe 



Yield 
Dry 

Matter 

to the 

Acre 


Percent- 
age OF 
Leaves 
Dry 

Weight 


Protein 


Percent- 
age OF 
Stalks 


Pounds 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


936 


79 


22.3 


21 


1628 


76.6 


26.1 


23.4 


2583 


72.8 


23.2 


27.2 


4997 


67 


26.7 


27.8 


4412 


56.7 


24.2 


28.7 


3496 


48.6 


20 


19.7 


2658 


40.9 


22.2 


17 



Percent 

age OF 

Flowers 
AND Pods 



Per cent 







5.2 
14.6 
31.7 
42.1 



537. Hay. — Field peas are usually cut for hay when 
the first pods are full grown but not yet filled, but cutting 
may be delayed until the leaves begin to turn yellow. 
This, however, will result in the hay containing many 
seeds. 

At the Utah Experiment Station Golden Vine peas 
cut in bloom gave a larger yield to the acre than when cut 
late. 

The yield of hay from peas alone probably averages 
less than 1 ton an acre. Partly on this account, and 
partly because of easier harvesting, they are nearly al- 
ways sown mixed with oats when intended for hay. 



448 FOEAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

At the Washington Experiment Station 7 varieties of 
field peas cut for hay gave an average yield of 5620 
pounds an acre in 1909, while in 1910 the average of 11 
varieties was 2730 pounds ; at the Michigan Upper 
Peninsula Station the average hay yield an acre of 7 va- 
rieties was 4100 pounds, the best being Golden Vine with 
5060 pounds ; at the South Dakota Experiment Station 
two varieties yielded 1400 and 1520 pounds to the acre. 

538. Peas and oats. — One of the oldest mixtures of 
a legume and non-legume for hay is peas and oats, both 
of which require much the same conditions, except that 
oats will withstand more cold. The advantage of the 
mixture is that the oats support the peas so that mowing 
is much easier. The rate of seeding is 1 to 2 bushels of 
peas and 1 to 2 bushels of oats to an acre. 

At the Ontario Agricultural College the best results 
were secured with 2 bushels of peas and 1 bushel of oats, 
and the next best with 2 bushels of each to the acre. The 
average yield of peas and oats during 7 years was 12.08 
tons green substance and 3.26 tons dry hay to the acre. 

The crop is cut for hay when the oats are in the early 
dough stage, but both may be allowed to mature and the 
seeds separated after thrashing. 

Other cereals are not quite as satisfactory as oats to 
grow with peas. Six-year average yields at the Ontario 
Agricultural College in green weight to the acre were as 
follows : peas and oats, 7.93 tons ; peas and barley, 7.20 
tons ; peas, barley and oats, 7.07 tons ; barley and oats, 
6.78 tons ; peas and wheat, 6.03 tons. 

539. Pasture value. — Peas are sometimes utilized by 
pasturing to hogs or sheep. Shaw states that 1 acre of 
peas at the Minnesota Experiment Station furnished in 
1895 pasture sufficient to feed 1 sheep for 345 days. 



PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 449 

The pasturing of field peas to fatten lambs has become 
an important industry in the mountain valleys of Colorado. 
As a rule the peas are sown with a small quantity of wheat 
or oats to support the vines. The lambs or sheep are 
turned into the pea fields when the peas are mature and 
are fed upon them for 70 to 120 days. These pea-fattened 
lambs command a high price in the market. 

540. Garden pea vines. — At canning factories where 
the green peas are separated from the vines by special 
machinery, the refuse vines are utilized as feed, being fed 
green, cured into hay or preserved as silage. It is some- 
times made into silage by putting the green vines in large 
stacks, this being the common method at canneries. Pea- 
vine silage has proven to be a good feed for dairy cows as 
well as for beef cattle and sheep. In 1908, 96 canneries 
handled the pea vines grown in 66,959 acres, and about 
60 per cent of the refuse vines were preserved as silage, the 
rest being fed green or cured into hay. 

541. Irrigation. — Peas may be grown under irrigation, 
but it is doubtful if so short-lived a forage crop will prove 
desirable for this purpose. 

At the Wyoming Experiment Station small plots were 
irrigated 1 to 7 times, using about 3 to 5 inches of water 
at an application. The yields of hay increased with the 
number of irrigations, the heaviest being 4.2 tons an acre 
from 7 applications, aggregating 23 inches of water. 

For seed-production 4 irrigations, aggregating 20 inches, 
gave a yield of 34.75 bushels to the acre, much more than 
was obtained by using either more or fewer irrigations. 

542. Seed-production. — Peas are usually harvested 
with an ordinary mower having an attachment in front of 
the knife so that the tangled vines are lifted up from the 
ground. Two men follow behind the mower and roll the 



450 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

pea vines back in a row or in bunches, so as to be out of 
the way of the mower when the next swath is cut. Some 
machines have a platform behind the mower, from which 
the vines are thrown at short intervals in bunches. 

From a small area the seed may be flailed, but usually 
grain thrashers are used. Precautions must be taken to 
avoid cracking too much of the seed ; namely, by remov- 
ing most of the teeth from the concaves, and by reducing 
the speed. If the crop is well cured, the seed thrashes out 
very easily. 

Extensive work has been conducted at most of the 
Canadian Experimental Farms in testing field peas for 
grain production. 

The average yield of the 12 best varieties tested for 
6 to 8 years at 5 Canadian stations was 2141 pounds, some- 
what over 35 bushels. At Ottawa the 12 best varieties 
averaged 2018 pounds to an acre ; at Brandon, Manitoba, 
2602 pounds ; at Nappan, N. S., 1917 pounds ; at Indian 
Head, Saskatchewan, 2253 pounds. The maximum 
yield reported is 85 bushels to an acre, a yield reached 
by the Mackay variety at Brandon, Manitoba, in 1904. 

The average yield for Canada in 1909 was 19.34 bushels 
an acre and in 1910, 13.38 bushels. 

In the table opposite are given the results of long- 
continued tests at 7 experimental farms in Canada. 

At the Montana Experiment Station, the average yield 
of peas for 2 years of all varieties tested was 39.5 bushels, 
and at the Washington Experiment Station 7 varieties 
gave the following yields of seed to the acre: Potter, 23.7 
bushels ; Canadian Beauty, 23 ; White Marrowfat, 20.3 ; 
Early Britain, 21 ; Scotch, 20 ; Golden Vine, 18.7 ; Prus- 
sian Blue, 16.7. 

543. Seed. — Peas germinate readily at low tempera- 



PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 



451 



O 



l-H 



<! 

o 

Q 



O 
<1 



O 03 






O CI t- rfH 

•6 »o 00 ■^' 



i> 00 ai 



CO ^ CO (M TJ^ CO 



i-i •< as 
O W << 






I- (M t^ rtH 

CO Tfi CO Tt< 






CO 



LO 



00 CD CO CO 

CO CO Tfi Tt^ 



Cf5 CO 
Oi CD 

CO TjH 



T}^ 00 Tt< CO 

C5 oi d cJ 

CO CO •* CO 









< 

o 



1— I CD O C5 

<M (M (M rH 



05 



d CD o d 

CO CO '^ CO 



^2§ 



CD Tfi CO (M CO lO (M (M 
CO'*TfTt^luO^OT^t^ 






OS, 



t- 



00 CD t- TjH (Oj C5 OQ 

L-O Oi rH ,-H 00 I> 1>I 



C0COCOCOC0(N(M(M 



2 
> 



• • -tJ +^ 

• -SI'S 

. . ^ o Sh 

d f" 53 

2 rZZ V^-l 1^ '-' ® 

1i|J|ii|l|l 

w Ah :z; eq ^ fc o S fl S o 



452 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

tures. The seed retains its viability well for 5 years and 
then quickly deteriorates. The legal weight of a bushel is 
60 pounds, but a bushel may weigh as high as 68 pounds, 
or as low as 52 pounds. 

Large seed is preferable to small seed of the same variety. 
In two-year trials at the Ontario Agricultural College the 
yield from the large seed averaged 26.2 bushels of peas 
and 1.14 tons of straw to an acre, while the small seed 
yielded 22.6 bushels of peas and 1.04 tons of straw. 

544. Pea-weevil {Laria pisorum or Bruchus pisorum). 
— The most serious enemy of the pea, especially when 
grown for seed-production, is the pea- weevil. This insect 
lays its eggs in the very young pea pods, and the larva 
upon hatching burrows into the soft young seeds, only one 
larva entering each seed. The larvae grow with the seed 
and remain therein until they become adult beetles. Nor- 
mally the beetles do not emerge until spring, in fact usually 
being in the seed when planted ; but if the seed is stored 
in a warm room, they emerge sooner. There is only one 
generation a year, and the insects do not multiply in the 
stored seeds. 

Seed may be rid of weevils in two ways ; namely, by 
fumigating with carbon bisulfide, so as to destroy the 
insects without injuring the seeds (Par. 625) ; or by keeping 
the seeds over one season in tight bags or other receptacles 
The beetles all emerge from the seeds and, being unable 
to escape, perish. 

Where peas are grown each year, weevils tend to be- 
come increasingly abundant, and finally make it impos- 
sible to grow crops of satisfactory seed. If, however, their 
planting is suspended for 2 to 3 years, the weevils are 
nearly eradicated. The growing of peas for seed is prac- 
tically limited to those regions where weevil injury is 



PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 453 

least. Weeviled seed shows greatly reduced germination, 
usually not over half of the seeds making plants. 

In Ontario both grass-peas and chick-peas have been 
grown to some extent in place of field peas, as they are not 
attacked by the pea-weevil 

CHICK-PEA (Cicer arietinum) 

545. The chick-pea is probably a native of western 
Asia. It was cultivated in ancient Greece and probably 
quite early in India. The plant has numerous other 
names, among them coffee bean, Idaho pea, Egyptian pea, 
Gipsy pea, garbanzo and Madras gram. At the present 
day its culture is important in India, Syria, Spain and 
Mexico, being grown mainly for the seeds, which are used 
as human food. 

The plant is a branched annual, growing to a height of 
1 to 2 feet ; leaves odd-pinnate with 7 pairs of oval toothed 
leaflets ; flowers small, white or pink, solitary ; pods thin, 
inflated, less than 1 inch long, each having 1 or 2 seeds. 
The whole herbage is sparsely covered with glandular 
hairs which secrete an acid substance. 

The varieties are numerous, differing in the size and 
shape of the seeds, and in Palestine, it is said, in their soil 
and seasonal adaptations. The variety grown in Spain 
and Mexico is that with the largest seeds, which are pale 
straw color. 

In a general way the adaptations of the chick-pea are 
like those of the common garden pea, the plant requiring 
a cool season for its best growth. 

It does not, however, withstand humidity as well as the 
garden pea, preferring a rather dry atmosphere. The 
crop is grown in winter in India, Spain, Mexico and to a 



454 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

slight extent in California. In the latter state it was 
uninjured by a temperature of 13° Fahrenheit. 

As a spring-sown crop the chick-pea has done fairly 
well in Idaho, Washington, Colorado, Iowa and Ontario. 
At the Ontario Agricultural College it has produced an 
average annual yield of 35.6 bushels seed and 1 ton of 
straw to an acre, and the average yield obtained by 56 
farmers was 19.8 bushels to an acre. In cold seasons, 
however, it does not thrive. The seeds are free from 
attack by the pea-weevil. 

The hay or straw of the plant is not liked by animals on 
account of the acid secretion, which is said to be injurious 
both to cattle and horses. In any case its very small 
yield does not justify growing the plant for hay. 

GRASS-PEA (Lathyrus sativus) 

546. The grass-pea, vetchling or chickling vetch, is 

native to the Mediterranean region eastward to central 
Asia. Its culture, which is very ancient, probably began 
in the region south of the Caspian Sea. Seeds have been 
found in the ruins of Troy, in ancient Egyptian graves and 
with human remains of the stone age in Hungary. In the 
Old World the plant is more or less cultivated in India, 
western Asia and the south of Europe. The seeds are 
used as human food, but it is said that if eaten continu- 
ously they are likely to cause paralysis. This deleterious 
character is, however, probably restricted to the varieties 
with colored seeds. 

The plant is an annual and has much the same adapta- 
tions as the pea, which in a general way it resembles. 
The stems are wing-margined and grow 2 to 3 feet high ; 
the pinnate leaves have but a single pair of narrow lanceo- 
late leaflets and tendrils at the tip; the long-peduncled 



PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 455 

flowers are solitary and either white or blue ; the pods are 
4-5 seeded ; the seeds are easily distinguished by being 
wedge shaped. There are probably ten or more varieties, 
distinguished most easily by the color of the flower and 
the size and color of the seeds. The latter may be yellow, 
brown or variously marbled and speckled. 

The grass-pea does not grow as tall as the field pea, 
but in yield of hay and grain it compares favorably. Its 
value lies mainly in the fact that its seeds are never at- 
tacked by the pea-weevil and seed crops can therefore be 
grown where weevils are too numerous for the field pea. 

In America they have been grown mainly in Ontario, 
but in small trials have been found to succeed in Iowa, 
Texas, Washington and California, and probably will 
thrive wherever the garden pea can be grown. At the 
Ontario Agricultural College, a variety with white flowers 
and yellow seeds has been extensively tested and has 
given good results except in the cold wet seasons. The 
average acre yield of seed for 7 years up to 1902 was 25.7 
bushels and the maximum 43 bushels, yields but slightly 
smaller than the best field peas. The average yield of 
straw was 2.2 tons to an acre, as against 1.6 tons for the 
Golden Vine pea. Grass-peas and common vetch were 
also tested in comparison during 5 years, the average 
green yield of the former being 6.7 tons to an acre 
against 6.8 tons for the latter. In another series of 
tests the average yield to an acre of green fodder was 
grass-peas, 10 tons ; common vetch, 8.93 tons ; and 
hairy vetch, 8.65 tons. More recent experience with 
grass-peas has been less favorable. 

The seeds of grass-peas have about the same feeding 
value as field peas. A bushel weighs 64 pounds. 



CHAPTER XX 
VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 

The term 'Wetch" has in common usage a rather 
loose apphcation. Properly it refers to species of the 
botanical genus Vicia, but it is in the cases of some culti- 
vated plants appliecV to species in related groups of plants. 
Thus crown vetch is a species of Coronilla ; kidney vetch 
is Anthyllis vulneraria; Dakota vetch is a species of 
Hosackia ; and several of the vetchlings, species of Lathy- 
rus, are sometimes called '' vetch." 

Botanists recognize about 120 kinds or species of Vicia, 
of which about 50 are annuals and most of the remainder 
perennials. In the United States, where about 20 wild 
kinds occur, they are commonly known as wild peas. 
Many of the species of vetch have been more or less 
extensively cultivated, and several others growing wild 
are utilized for hay or pasturage, or in a few cases the 
seeds are used for human food. 

547. Kinds of vetches. — The cultivated vetches include 
the following: Common vetch, or tares (Vicia sativa) ; 
hairy, sand or Russian vetch ( Vicia villosa) ; bitter vetch 
(Vicia ervilia) ; scarlet vetch (Vicia ful gens) ; purple vetch 
( Vicia atropurpurea) ; Narbonne vetch ( Vicia narbonnen- 
sis) ; narrow-leaved vetch (Vicia angtistifolia) . Another 
species, Vicia jaba, is extensively cultivated and has 
numerous varieties known as broad beans, Windsor beans, 

456 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 457 

SOW beans, horse beans, and so on, but the name " vetch " 
is never used in referring to this crop. Only two kinds 
of vetches, namely, the common vetch and the hairy 
vetch, are much grown in the United States at present, but 
other species are likely to become of increasing importance. 
Thus bitter vetch is growing in favor as a cover crop 
in California, and scarlet, purple and woolly-podded 
vetches are all excellent, and with cheaper seed would 
certainly be largely grown. 

548. Common vetch {Vicia saliva). — Common vetch, 
or tares, is strictly an annual, having much the same habit 
as the garden or English pea, but the stems are more 
slender and usually taller, growing 3 to 5 feet or more in 
length ; leaves pinnate, with about seven pairs of leaflets 
and a terminal tendril ; flowers violet-purple, rarely white 
and borne in pairs on a very short stalk ; pods brown, 
each containing four or five seeds, which are gray or 
marbled in the commonest varieties. At maturity the 
pods readily coil and discharge the seeds. 

Owing to the fact that the seed is grown largely in 
western Oregon, where it is usually fall sown, it has be- 
come known, also, as Oregon winter vetch. In contrast 
with hairy vetch, common vetch is also known as smooth 
vetch, and sometimes the name English vetch is applied 
to it. The gray-seeded variety of common vetch is the 
one most cultivated in the United States. 

549. Botany and agricultural history. - — Common vetch 
is native over much of Europe and western Asia. The 
species is very variable, and numerous botanical varie- 
ties have been named. 

According to De Candolle, the earliest reference to its 
culture was by Cato about 60 B.C., when it was grown 
both for seed and for fodder. 



458 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Common vetch was grown in New York as early as 
1794. 

550. Adaptations. — Common vetch requires a cool 
growing season; the winter strains will withstand a 
temperature as low as 10° F. without injury, but zero 
weather results in much winter-killing. Vetch is therefore 
planted in the fall on the Pacific Coast and in the South. 
In the Northern States and Canada spring sowing is 
necessary. It languishes, however, under hot summer 
weather and is not adapted to the Central States. 

It prefers a well-drained soil and will not thrive in poorly 
drained land. It does best in loams or sandy loams, 
though excellent crops are grown both on sandy and grav- 
elly soils. On poor lands vetch is often used as a soil 
improver, and while the yield may not be large, to plant 
it is often good farm practice. On poor soils special care 
should be taken to provide thorough inoculation, as with- 
out it failures commonly result. 

551. Importance. — Common vetch is important as 
a hay crop west of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon 
and Washington ; as a winter green-manure crop in Cali- 
fornia ; and as a hay crop in the Southern States. In the 
Northern States and Canada it is but little grown, hairy 
vetch being much better adapted. 

In Europe, vetch is probably the most important annual 
legume grown for forage. 

552. Agricultural varieties. — The cultivated varieties 
of common vetch are numerous and distinguished mainly 
by the size and color of the seeds. The most important 
variety has the seeds gray, marbled with a darker color. 
Of this there are two strains, distinguished in European 
agriculture as spring vetch and winter vetch. Pearl or 
white-seeded vetch has white seeds often used as human 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 459 

food. Sardinian vetch has the seeds brown ; gray vetch 
is another name for the commonest variet}^ with grayish 
seeds. 

553. Culture. — The seed-bed for common vetch should 
be quite firm. For this reason it is a common practice in 
Oregon to broadcast the seed in wheat or oat stubble and 
then go over it with an ordinary disk harrow, or if the land 
is fairly loose the seed is simply sown in the stubble with a 
disk drill. This method gives satisfactory results, espe- 
cially if the previous small-grain crop has been spring sown 
and if the vetch is sown quite early in the fall. If the 
planting is done later or if the previous grain crop was 
fall sown, the land is usually too compact, and thorough 
preparation of the soil is advantageous. 

In the South special preparation of the soil before plant- 
ing vetch is usually necessary. But few successes have 
thus far been noted by planting in cotton or other culti- 
vated crop, but where the soil is thoroughly inoculated 
this method has given excellent results. 

Common vetch seed may be sown either broadcast or 
by drilling. Broadcasting is the older method and per- 
haps still the most common, but the use of the drill has 
greatly increased in recent years, especially in Oregon. 

Vetch may be sown alone or with one of the small grains 
as a supporting crop. To sow with grain has been and 
still is the commoner practice where the crop is grown 
mainly for hay, as the grain furnishes a support for the 
weak stems of the vetch and prevents lodging to a con- 
siderable extent. Oats are the favorite grain to use in 
combination with vetch, though rj^e, wheat and barley 
may be used. Oats are preferred, not only on account 
of the superior quality of oat hay, but from the fact that 
where a seed crop is grown the oat seed can be readily 



460 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

separated from the vetch seed, while there is greater 
difficulty with rye, wheat, or barley. 

Where vetch is used mainly as a green-manure crop, 
as in southern California, it is nearly always sown alone. 
In late years in Oregon the tendency has been to plant 
vetch alone when the crop is grown for seed. This 
change has been brought about as a result of the high 
prices charged for thrashing, the same price being charged 
for thrashing vetch and wheat or oats combined as for 
vetch alone. 

554. Time of sowing. — Common vetch is usually sown 
in the fall, from September till as late as December. In 
western Oregon and western Washington most of it is 
seeded in October, but a growing tendency is to plant it 
in September, as the damage by winter-killing seems to 
be reduced. Pearl vetch, which is not winter hardy, is 
planted toward the end of March, and it is not uncommon 
to plant common vetch at the same time. Indeed, some 
dairy farmers plant it at various dates, so as to use it to 
feed green. Sown with oats about October 1, it is ready 
to feed about May 1 ; planted later, it can be cut about 
June 1 ; and if early spring sowing in February or March 
is practiced, the vetch can be fed from June 15 to July 15. 
When cut early for soiling, a small second crop may be 
cut or used as pasture. 

In southern California, when used for green-manuring 
purposes, common vetch is sown in September, so that it 
can be plowed under by March. 

In the Southern States, oats and common vetch should 
always be sown in the fall, October being the best month, 
though the planting may be delayed till the middle of 
December. Early fall planting gives the best results for 
green manuring. 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 461 

Where the winters are severe, common vetch must be 
planted in the spring, but it is not often grown. It suc- 
ceeds wherever field peas do well, but the field peas are 
usually preferable. 

555. Rate of seeding. — Common vetch if sown alone 
is perhaps most often seeded at the rate of 1 bushel (60 
pounds) to the acre. This is sufficient to produce a per- 
fect stand if there is no winter-killing. Thus, in Oregon, 
it is the common practice to sow 60 pounds of seed to the 
acre in the foothills where the drainage is good and the 
amount of winter-killing very small. If a mixture be 
sown, it varies from 30 pounds of vetch and 20 pounds of 
oats to double this combined quantity. 

In the low-lying lands, where a certain amount of loss 
is likely from winter-killing, especially where soils become 
wet, a larger quantity of seed, namely, from 70 to 90 or 
even 120 pounds, is sown. If sown in combination with 
oats, 60 pounds of vetch and 40 pounds of oats are most 
commonly planted. The same rate of seeding is used as 
a rule whether the crop is grown for hay or for seed. 
Should the prospect be good for a high price for seed, the 
crop may be left to mature ; otherwise it is cut for hay. 

Some growers plant as high as 2 bushels of vetch to the 
acre when grown for seed alone. Such thick plantings 
stand up somewhat better, but it is doubtful whether 
any material gain results. 

In California, when common vetch is planted as a green- 
manure crop, the usual rate of seeding is 60 pounds to the 
acre, but as low as 40 pounds are sometimes sown. 

In the Southern States there is nearly as much varia- 
bility in the seeding rate as in Oregon, but usually less 
seed is sown, about 40 or 45 pounds of vetch and 8 to 10 
of oats. 



462 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

556. Harvesting for hay. — Vetch should be cut for 
hay from the period of full bloom to formation of the first 
pods. It is commonly and satisfactorily cut with an ordi- 
nary mower with a swather attachment. After cutting, 
the vetch should be bunched with a horserake and then 
shocked with pitchforks. This handling should always 
be done before the vetch leaves are dry. It should be 
allowed to cure in the shocks several days, and, if possible, 
hay caps should be used, especially if rainy weather is 
feared. Where a swather is not used, the cutting is con- 
siderably more difficult. In either case it is the common 
practice to allow the vetch to lie one day before shocking. 

It is sometimes desirable to pasture fall-sown vetch in 
the spring so as to bring the haying season somewhat 
later and also to prevent heavy lodging. This is quite 
commonly done in western Washington and western 
Oregon. 

Common vetch yields from 1§ to 3| tons of hay to an 
acre. An average yield in the Pacific States is 2| tons, 
and in the Southern States somewhat less. 

557. Pasturing. — Common vetch is utilized by Oregon 
and Washington dairymen for pasturage during winter, 
spring and early summer. It is eagerly eaten by all 
farm live stock. As a general rule, the vetch is pastured 
only when the ground is dry, not only to avoid packing 
the soil but because both cattle and sheep are liable to 
bloat on vetch, especially in wet weather. 

Even when vetch is grown primarily for hay or for seed, 
a limited amount of pasturing is often desirable, especially 
where the growth is unusually rank or where it is desirable 
to bring the harvest later. Hogs should not be used for 
this purpose, as they kill out many of the plants by biting 
them off below the crown. Sheep and calves do the least 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 463 

damage in pasturing vetch designed for a hay or seed 
crop. 

558. Feeding value. — Common vetch is eagerly eaten 
by cows, hogs and sheep. Its high value for milk produc- 
tion has long been recognized in Europe. At the Oregon 
Experiment Station cows fed vetch hay for 45 days kept 
up their milk flow unimpaired. In a feeding test with 
steers fed for 42 days two animals fed vetch hay gained, 
respectively, 3.07 and 2.07 pounds a day, while two fed 
red-clover hay gained 2.56 and 2.16 pounds a day. 

559. Rotations. — Common vetch is nearly always 
grown in rotation. Continuous cropping to vetch for seed 
production usually results in reduced yields after two or 
three years, according to Oregon experience. The effects 
of cutting the crop for hay seem to be far less marked, but, 
nevertheless, continuous cropping to vetch is unnecessary 
and undesirable. 

In Oregon and Washington common vetch is usually 
grown after spring-sown oats. It is advantageously used 
also in rotation with potatoes or corn. 

In the region about Augusta, Georgia, the most famous 
vetch-growing section in the South, the crop is mostly 
grown in rotation with Johnson-grass, this being especially 
true on valley lands where the Johnson-grass volunteers. 
Vetch, commonly mixed with oats or other small grain 
is usually planted in October on well-prepared land and 
harvested by the middle of May. After the vetch crop is 
removed, the Johnson-grass, more or less mixed with other 
grasses, begins to grow and commonly yields two hay 
cuttings during the season. 

Where Johnson-grass does not permanently occupy the 
land it is not advisable to sow it, as it is extremely difficult 
to eradicate. In this case various summer crops can be 



464 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

grown in the rotation, such as sorghum, cowpeas, sorghum 
and cowpeas, soybeans, peanuts, etc. 

Common vetch is not well adapted to rotating with 
cotton unless used merely as a green manure. The vetch 
cannot be harvested soon enough to permit the early 
planting of cotton, even when the seed is sown between 
the rows of cotton. 

Common vetch is somewhat inchned to persist when 
once grown, especially where the winters are mild. Ex- 
amples are known of its reseeding itself in pastures for 
five years. In cultivated fields it volunteers readily, 
which is especially objectionable in the wheat crop, owing 
to the difficulty of separating the vetch seed from the 
wheat. There is no danger of volunteer vetch unless a 
seed crop is grown or at least some of the seed allowed to 
ripen. In such cases, to avoid volunteer vetch, the best 
plan is to follow with a crop of vetch and oats for hay, 
pasturing the stubble, so that no seed is allowed to ripen. 
A cultivated crop should be grown the next season, and 
then the land can be planted to wheat without any danger 
of the vetch volunteering. 

560. Fertilizers. — Information concerning the best 
fertihzers for common vetch is very limited. Barnyard 
manure is nearly always beneficial, and dairy farmers 
especially find it profitable to use on vetch fields. 

In western Oregon, it is now a common practice to apply 
gypsum, or land plaster, and special machines are often 
used to apply it. It is commonly applied at the rate of 
75 to 150 pounds to the acre. At the Oregon Experiment 
Station, 100 pounds of gypsum to the acre increased the 
yield from 7394 to 9031 pounds of hay to the acre. 

In the South, a fertilizer containing phosphoric acid and 
potash is often used, a common rate of application being 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 465 

200 pounds of acid phosphate and 100 pounds of muriate 
of potash to the acre. 

561. Lime. — Vetches, Hke lupines, are injured by large 
applications of lime, but are not so sensitive to small 
amounts. Ulbricht in Germany found that in pot 
experiments the application of lime diminished the ability 
of the plant to assimilate phosphorus and nitrogen, but 
not potash. 

Field experiments have given mixed results, but in gen- 
eral it appears clear that liming is not advisable for vetches. 

562. Silage. — Vetch has been several times preserved 
as silage at the Oregon Experiment Station, where cattle 
preferred it to that made of red clover. Smith reports 
that it is also used for silage at a large dairy in South 
Carolina with entire satisfaction. 

563. Seed-production. — Common vetch seed is pro- 
duced in large quantities in the United States only in the 
Willamette Valley, Oregon. The methods of handling the 
seed crop vary, due partly to difference of opinion as 
to the best method, but more largely to the machinery 
possessed by the grower. 

It is the general practice to cut vetch for seed as soon 
as the lower pods are fully ripe, at which time the upper 
pods will be fully formed and the plant will be carrying 
a maximum quantity of seed. Later cutting occasions 
more shattering of seed, while earlier cutting results in 
a considerable percentage of immature seed. In a few 
places, where but little seed is raised, the crop is cut with 
an ordinary mowing machine. Two men with pitchforks 
follow the mower and roll the vetch back from the uncut 
area so as to enable the machine to get through when 
cutting the next swath. Sometimes the first swath cut 
is rolled on the uncut vetch, and when the succeeding swath 

2h 



466 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

is cut, the two are rolled back out of the way. This puts 
the vetch in larger swaths than the first-mentioned 
method and also somewhat reduces the loss from shatter- 
ing. These two mower and pitchfork methods were for- 
merly used generally, but now have been largely super- 
seded by other methods. 

An ordinary grain binder is used by some growers, es- 
pecially when the vetch is short and therefore quite erect 
or when it is grown with a supporting crop, such as oats. 
When thus harvested, the crop is put in shocks similar 
to grain shocks and allowed to remain until thrashed. 

The most common way of harvesting vetch at present 
is to use an ordinary mower with a swather attachment. 
The swather, which is attached to and behind the sickle 
bar, rolls the vetch in a swath to the outside and leaves 
the way clear to cut the next swath. 

Whatever method is used in cutting, the vetch is put 
at once into shocks and remains till thrashed. The most 
important rule in the harvesting of vetch seed is to handle 
the crop rapidly and as little as possible when cut. 

Common vetch varies considerably in the yield of seed 
to the acre. Five bushels is considered a low yield, and 
20 to 25 bushel yields are near the maximum. The 
average acre yield is probably from 10 to 12 bushels. 

564. Seed. —Common vetch seed has been extensively 
grown for some years in western Oregon, and practically 
all of this seed has been marketed on the Pacific Coast. 
Were it not for high freight rates, all of the seed required 
in the United States could be grown in this section. The 
price paid to the grower has varied greatly, the maximum 
being 1| cents a pound, but in 1909, owing to extraordi- 
nary conditions, he realized but one-half cent a pound, at 
which price the seed crop is not profitable. 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 



467 



Practically all of the common vetch seed used in the 
Southern States is from Europe. Its wholesale price at 
European ports is usually from 2 to 2| cents a pound and 
the freight to American ports is about one-quarter of a 
cent a pound. The prices that American vetch seed 
growers obtain is practically controlled by the price of 
European seed. 

Common vetch seed retains its vitality well for about 
three years, after which it rapidly deteriorates. Very 





'^^^ 




Fig. 52. — Seeds of 
common vetch {Vicia 
sativa). (Natural size.) 



Fig. 53. — Seed 
scar of common 
vetch. (Enlarged.) 



Fig. 54. Types of 
mottling of seeds of 
common vetch ; a and 
b, from light and dark 
seeds, respectively. 
(Enlarged.) 



fresh seed of common vetch does not germinate well. 
A large proportion of the seed is hard, and most of this 
probably does not germinate until the following season. 
One pound contains about 8000 seeds. 

HAIRY VETCH (VlCia vUloSO) 

565. Hairy vetch is also known as sand vetch, Russian 
vetch, Siberian vetch, and villose vetch. In the United 
States it has also come to be known as winter vetch, 
a term used in Europe wholly for a winter strain of 
common vetch. It is a winter annual, but often behaves 
as a biennial ; stems slender, sometimes growing to a 



468 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



length of 12 feet, but on account of the weakness, the mass 
of plants seldom exceeds 4 feet in height ; herbage hairy 
and somewhat silvery; leaflets narrow, 11 to 17 ; flowers 
blue-violet, rarely white, borne on a long stalk in dense 

one-sided clusters of 
about 30 ; pods pale 
colored, smooth, each 
containing two to 
eight small, globose, 
nearly black seeds. 

The root system is 
richly branched and 
extends deep into the 
soil. At the Cornell 
station plants from 
seed sown July 10 
had roots by Novem- 
ber 10 which pene- 
trated 3 feet 8 inches 
in tough clay. The 
young plants go 
largely to root devel- 
opment, so that the 
top growth is slow 
at first. 
At the Delaware Experiment Station the tops were 
estimated to produce 3064 and the roots 600 pounds dry 
weight to the acre. 

566. Botany. — Hairy vetch is found wild in Russia, 
Germany and Hungary, in which countries it is apt to 
occur as a weed in grain fields. It was cultivated in Eng- 
land in 1815, in Scotland in 1833, and in Germany in 1857. 
Its first introduction into America was about 1847, but 




Fig. 55. — Hairy vetch. 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 469 

it obtained little prominence until 1886, when it was again 
introduced by the Department of Agriculture, since which 
time it has become more and more appreciated. 

567. Climatic adaptations. — Hairy vetch is naturally 
adapted to cool temperate climates, under which condi- 
tions it behaves normally as a winter annual. The seeds 
ripen from July to September, germinate the same season, 
and the plant reaches maturity the next season. If 
planted in spring, the growth made is not nearly so large 
as if planted in fall. In the Northern States spring 
plantings may produce some flowers but rarely produce 
pods, the plants living over the winter and coming to 
maturity the second season. In the Southern States fall 
plantings are necessary, as hairy vetch will not withstand 
the heat of the summer. The cold resistance of the plants 
is very marked, hairy vetch rarely winter-killing in any 
of the states if well established in the fall. It is also 
markedly drought resistant, much more so than common 
vetch. 

Perhaps correlated with its greater hardiness is the 
fact that hairy vetch makes much less growth in winter 
than common vetch and other species. On this account 
hairy vetch is not desirable as a green-manure crop to be 
plowed under in early spring. 

568. Soil preferences. — Hairy vetch prefers sandy 
or sandy loam soils, especially such as are rich in lime. 
The plant will succeed, however, in a great variety of soils, 
doing well even on clays, provided they are well drained, 
but does not succeed on very wet soils. It is quite 
resistant to alkali, and will germinate in soils too alkaline 
for most legumes. 

569. Rate of seeding. — Hairy vetch is not often sown 
alone, but when this is the case, the common American 



470 



FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



practice is to sow 40 to 60 pounds to the acre. No exact 
American experiments have been conducted to ascertain 
the most satisfactory rate in such seedings. In Europe, 
the seeding rates, according to Werner, are very much 
higher, 120 to 200 pounds to the acre when broadcast, 
120 to 160 pounds when drilled. 

On account of the weak stems of hairy vetch, the most 
common practice is to sow it with a supporting crop, 
usually one of the small grains — rye, wheat, oats or 
barley. In such mixtures a full seeding of the small 
grain is usual, and to this is added 20 to 25 pounds of 
hairy vetch. 

At the Virginia Experiment Station the following 
results were secured from different mixtures : — 







Per Cent 


Yield to 


AN Acre 


Rate of Seeding to an Acre 


OF Vetch 
IN Green 










Crop 


Green 
Crop 


Hay 








Tons 


Tons 


Vetch, 16 lb. 


— Oats, 25 lb. ... 


5.00 


2.52 


1.37 


Vetch, 16 lb. 


— Oats, 37| lb. 






4.57 


2.60 


1.57 


Vetch, 16 lb. 


— Oats, 50 lb. 






2.00 


2.52 


1.47 


Vetch, 32 lb. 


— Oats, 25 lb. 






9.03 


1.80 


.90 


Vetch, 32 lb. 


— Oats, 37* lb. 






4.94 


2.15 


1.25 


Vetch, 32 lb. 


— Oats, 50 lb. 






1.86 


2.35 


1.45 


Vetch, 48 lb. 


— Oats, 25 lb. 






12.68 


1.67 


.97 


Vetch, 48 lb. 


— Oats, 37^ lb. 






5.35 


1.75 


1.00 


Vetch, 48 lb. 


— Oats, 50 lb. 






1.76 


2.12 


1.25 


Vetch, 1b. 


— Oats, 50 lb. 








2.25 


1.32 









670. Time of seeding. — Hairy vetch succeeds every- 
where best if planted in the fall. However, in regions where 
soil moisture conditions are such as to render fall planting 
unsatisfactory, spring plantings often give good results, 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 471 

especially in the Northern and Western States. Spring 
seedings are, however, wholly unsatisfactory where the sum- 
mer heat is great, as the plants quickly succumb under 
such conditions. The soil condition at the time of seeding 
is not a matter of vital importance, as if the ground is too 
dry, the seeds will remain a long time without germinat- 
ing, and with comparatively little moisture the seedlings 
become well established. 

Too late seedings are to be avoided. At the Virginia 
Experiment Station mixed seedings of hairy vetch 32 
pounds and oats 50 pounds to an acre were made Sep- 
tember 15, September 30, October 15 and October 30. 
The resultant hay yields were respectively 4200, 4500, 134 
and pounds to an acre. 

571. Depth of seeding. — The seed of hairy vetch 
germinates very much like that of the field pea ; that 
is, the cotyledons remain where planted, the plumule 
becoming much elongated. Largely on this account, hairy 
vetch seed may be sown quite deeply without any injury 
to the stand. Up to 4 inches in depth, no loss from 
deep planting occurs, and surface sowings are satisfactory, 
provided moisture conditions are good. Ordinarily, a 
depth of 1| to 2 inches is to be recommended. 

572. Inoculation. — Hairy vetch unless inoculated does 
not succeed. It is readily inoculated from both common 
vetch and narrow-leaved vetch, and doubtless by other 
vetches. According to Nobbe the pea and vetches 
readily inoculate each other. This idea prevails where 
vetches are most grown, but the evidence is not conclu- 
sive. The nodules are usually lobed and often in globose 
clusters. 

573. Uses of the crop. — Hairy vetch may be fed 
either as hay, pasturage or silage. The greater part of the 



472 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

crop is fed as hay. Smith reports that a large dairy farm 
near Columbia, South Carohna, feeds it as silage with 
good results. As a pasture crop it is excellent for swine, 
sheep and cattle. It is sometimes pastured for a period 
while young, and then permitted to grow a crop of hay or 
seed. This has the advantage of making the second 
growth smaller, so that it does not lodge, which is 
especially desirable in seed-production. If the crop of 
hay is cut rather young, the aftermath furnishes good 
pasturage, or sometimes a second crop of hay. 

574. Pollination. — Hairy vetch is much visited by 
bees, both honeybees and bumblebees. The structure 
of the flower is adapted to cross-pollination, and experi- 
ments in bagging the flowers to prevent visits of insects 
show that the latter are necessary for the formation of pods 
and seeds. 

575. Harvesting for hay. — Hairy vetch is probably 
best cut for hay during the time that the first pods are 
full grown, but not filled out, but it is often cut when 
the plants are in full bloom. On account of the tangled 
mass of vines which hairy vetch makes, especially when 
grown alone, mowing is sometimes difficult. It may be 
cut with an ordinary mower, but a swather attachment is 
desirable. The curing is difficult on account of the ten- 
dency of the leaflets to dry before the stems. On this 
account, great care needs to be taken to avoid the loss of 
the leaves. Ordinarily hairy vetch is allowed to remain 
in the swath for one day and then shocked. With good 
weather, complete curing can be obtained in from five to 
eight days. 

Hay of hairy vetch is palatable and as a rule readily eaten 
by animals. The yield of hay when grown alone ranges 
from 3000 to 5000 pounds or more to an acre. The acre 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 4T3 

yields actually reported by experiment stations are : 
Michigan, 4188 ; Colorado, 7000 ; Mississippi, broadcast, 
3565, drilled in 30-inch rows, 2774; Alabama, 2540; 
Cornell, 6824; Pennsylvania, 1785; Idaho, 4600; 
Tennessee, 3200 to 6560. 

Other stations have reported the yield green as follows 
in pounds to an acre : New Hampshire, 27,588 ; Colorado, 
13,400 ; California, 32,760 ; Pennsylvania, 5250 ; Ontario 
Agricultural College, 20,400, average of 4 years ; Massa- 
chusetts, 20,000. 

576. Feeding value. — Little is definitely known of the 
value of hairy vetch, as but few feeding experiments are 
reported. Judged from chemical analyses alone its value 
would apparently be the highest of all legumes. 

577. Use in rotations. — Hairy vetch is well adapted 
for use in a simple rotation with a summer crop, filling 
practically the same place in this respect as crimson clover, 
but hairy vetch is adapted to a much wider range of 
climatic conditions. As a winter crop, it can well be 
grown in rotation with such summer crops as sorghums, 
millets, late-planted corn, cowpeas and soybeans. In some 
southern states it is commonly grown in rotation with 
Johnson-grass. Johnson-grass sod is plowed in the fall, 
and the hairy vetch then planted usually with oats. 
The oat and vetch hay can then be cut in May, and fol- 
lowing this, two crops of Johnson-grass hay can be secured. 
A fall plowing is not only necessary for the planting of 
the vetch and oats, but increases greatly the yield from 
the Johnson-grass. In the Northern States a crop of 
vetch hay can be cut early enough to grow a crop of 
millet hay the same season. 

The practice of planting hairy vetch in corn at the 
last cultivation is increasing. The vetch is often more 



474 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

desirable than crimson clover from the fact that stands 
are much more easily obtained. In some instances mix- 
tures of crimson clover and hairy vetch are being sown, 
partly because the mixture is a desirable one, and partly 
because a catch of vetch is often obtained when crimson 
clover fails. 

578. Advantages and disadvantages. — The principal 
advantages of hairy vetch are its winter hardiness and 
drought resistance, and the fact that satisfactory crops, 
at least of hay, may be secured on nearly all types of soil. 
Its disadvantages are the fact that the cost of seed is 
usually too high, costing in recent years from 10 to 15 
cents a pound, and the difficulty of mowing the tangled 
and often lodged mass of herbage. The problem of the 
cost of seed can easily be solved by most farmers by grow- 
ing their own seed, but there is no good reason why the 
commercial cost of seed should be greater than 7 cents a 
pound. In feeding value and in effect on succeeding crops 
hairy vetch is comparable to other annual legumes. An- 
other great advantage of hairy vetch up to the present 
day is that it is almost completely free from any serious 
insects or diseases. Occasionally fields are somewhat 
injured by mildew, but this damage is rarely important. 

579. Growing seed. — Seed crops of hairy vetch can 
probably be grown in most parts of the United States. 
When grown for this purpose, it is rather better to plant 
with a small grain and to seed the vetch thinly. Much 
more vetch seed is also produced on poor soil than on rich 
soil. Where the stand of vetch in rye or other grain is 
thin, the crop is harvested as easily as if alone. On the 
other hand, if the vetch is too thick, the grain does not 
cut well with a binder, and often is lodged badly on account 
of the weight of the vetch plants. Most of the Russian 




Pi.ATE VI. — Hairy Vetch and Rye. 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 475 

seed is that obtained incidentally from vetch occurring 
naturally in grain fields. When grown alone, hairy vetch 
should be harvested for seed as soon as the first pods are 
ripe, regardless of the fact that flowering takes place 
over a considerable period, and that many pods are green 
when the first are ripened. 

The seeds of vetch are easily separated from wheat or 
rye by means of a spiral separator especially designed 
for the purpose. For local use, mixed seed of hairy vetch 
and a grain is sometimes sold as harvested, but usually, 
in such combinations, the proportion of grain to vetch seed 
is too large. Some farmers do not cut their vetch for hay 
until some of the seed has ripened and shattered. By 
this means a volunteer crop can be obtained year after 
year. The quality of the hay is injured, however, on 
account of late cutting. On fields of hairy vetch har- 
vested for seed it usually happens that sufficient seed 
shatters to give a perfect stand. 

The yields of seed vary greatly according to season. 
At the Ontario Agricultural College the maximum yield 
obtained was 21.2 bushels to an acre, but the average of 
9 years was only 6.8 bushels. Yields recorded by experi- 
ment stations in bushels to an acre are : Washington, 14.7 
and 5.5 ; South Dakota, 6.5 ; Colorado, 7.7 ; Wisconsin, 
2.5; Mississippi, 5.57, 5.85, 7.4 and 10; Oregon, 10 
bushels vetch and 30 bushels oats ; Connecticut, 12 
bushels vetch and 15 bushels rye. 

580. Sources of seed. — Most of the seed used in the 
United States at the present time is obtained from Russia 
and eastern Germany. Larger quantities of it, however, 
are being grown in the United States each year, and 
undoubtedly sufficient for domestic use will soon be home- 
grown seed. European seed is frequently deficient in 



476 FORAGE PLANTS AND TBEIB CULTURE 

germination. Shamel reports experiments from Connecti- 
cut which seem to indicate that Connecticut-grown 
seed is considerably hardier than Russian seed. The 
experience at the Ontario Agricultural College shows 
clearly that acclimatized seed gives better results. The 
seed yield alone averaged 2.5 bushels more to an acre 
during 7 years from the acclimatized strain. 

581. Seeds. — The seeds of hairy vetch are globose. 
Most of them appear black, but really are black marbled 
on an olive ground 
color. Rarely olive- 
colored seeds are 
found. When fresh, 
the surface appears 
velvety. They vary 
_ greatly in size, but 
O ^ ©"^ one pound of an fig. 57. - Seed 

Fig. 56. — Seeds of average Sample con- scar of hairy vetch ; 

hairy vetch {Vicia ^.„:„^ f„^^ 7A aoo to * ^"^^ ^' ^^"^^^ ^^^^^ 

villosa). (Natural ^^^^^^^^"^ '^^'^^^ 7 ing the white, central 

size.) 80,000 seeds. Fresh slit of some scars. 

1 • , 11 (Enlarged.) 

seeds germmate well, 
usually over 90 per cent. Seeds a year old are charac- 
terized by a high percentage, 10 per cent to 40 per 
cent, of hard seeds which he in the ground a long time 
without germinating. According to Hillman, the pro- 
portion of hard seeds diminishes in seeds older than one 
year. 

Other vetch seeds, especially small seeds of common 
vetch, are used to adulterate hairy vetch. These can 
usually be detected by their grayish or mottled color. 
Hillman points out that hairy vetch seeds can be distin- 
guished from any other vetch seed used as an adulterant 
by the shape of the hilum or seed scar. In hairy vetch 




VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 477 

this is narrowly elliptical in outline, alniost equally broad 
at each end, while in other vetches it is lanceolate or wedge- 
shaped. Brown finds that the germ of hairy vetch seed 
is paler than other vetches used as adulterants. If any 
of the seeds when crushed disclose colors varying from 
dark fawn to reddish-orange, they are not hairy vetch. 

OTHER VETCHES 

582. Narrow-leaved vetch (Vicia angustifolia) is very 
nearly related to common vetch, but is distinguished by 
its narrower leaflets, smaller flowers, black pods and round, 
smaller seeds. It is much better adapted to the conditions 
of the eastern United States than common vetch, as it has 
become naturalized and thoroughly established from 
Georgia to Pennsylvania, and occurs even as far north as 
Nova Scotia. In Georgia it is highly appreciated in 
the vetch-growing sections and sometimes makes up a 
considerable portion of the hay. It maintains itself 
from year to year, as some seeds mature before common 
vetch is ready to cut for hay. On pastures it remains as 
a permanent element and is greatly valued. Seed is 
sometimes offered for sale, but is not available in quan- 
tity. 

583. Purple vetch (Vicia atropurpurea) is a native of 
Europe cultivated to a slight extent in England, Germany, 
and France. It is an annual species with handsome red- 
purple flowers. Its adaptations are essentially those of 
common vetch. 

It has proved to be very well adapted to western Oregon, 
where it has produced as good hay crops and better seed 
crops than common vetch. In California it has proven 
very satisfactory as a green-manure crop in citrus orchards, 
as it makes a heavy growth in the cool weather of winter. 



478 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

In the Southern States it has also succeeded well, and with 
seed as cheap as common vetch will probably come into 
large use. 

584. Woolly-pod vetch ( Vicia dastjcarpa) is native over 
much of Europe. It is very similar to hairy vetch in every 
respect, but the leaves are less pubescent, the fragrant 
flowers are purple, and the plant 2 to 3 weeks earlier. 
Agriculturally it can be used in exactly the same way as 
hairy vetch, but it makes better growth in cool weather, 
so that when mature the total yield is scarcely inferior. 

585. Scarlet vetch (Vicia Julgens) is an annual, native 
to the Mediterranean region. It is cultivated to a small 
extent in France. Scarlet vetch is the most erect growing 
of the annual slender-stemmed vetches. It is charac- 
terized by its narrow leaflets and beautiful scarlet flowers 
in one-sided clusters. It is even less hardy than common 
vetch, but usually withstands the winters of the Pacific 
coast and the cotton states. Only rarely does it produce 
seed in large quantities, and the pods shatter readily, so 
that the seed is comparatively expensive. The plant is 
quite drought resistant, and from spring sowings has suc- 
ceeded better in the semi-arid regions than any other vetch 
except the purple. It is very doubtful whether the seed 
of this vetch will ever be cheap enough to enable it to com- 
pete with other varieties. 

586. Ervil or black bitter vetch {Vicia ervilia) was culti- 
vated for fodder by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and 
seeds have been found in the ruins of ancient Troy. It 
still is a crop of some importance in Asiatic Turkey. The 
plant is apparently native to the region about the eastern 
end of the Mediterranean. 

Unlike most other vetches, it is upright in habit, and 
without tendrils. The plants grow to a height of 2 to 2| 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 479 

feet. The seed habits are excellent, the plant producing 
numerous pods which shatter but little. Seed is grown 
so cheaply that it has been imported into England from 
Syria for stock feed. 

The seeds, however, are said, like those of species of 
Lathyrus and Coronilla, to affect the nervous system and 
finally cause paralysis. 

Ervil has succeeded admirably under California condi- 
tions when sown in the fall. The crop makes a good 
growth through the winter and for this reason is well 
adapted for use as a cover crop in orchards. To secure a 
good stand about 70 pounds of seed to an acre is needed. 

At the Puyallup, Washington Station, five plots of ervil 
were planted in spring on clay uplands and yielded re- 
spectively 7.5, 21.5, and 37.7 bushels seed to an acre; 
one plot on alluvial clay yielded 36.6 bushels ; and one 
on sandy loam 13.3 bushels to an acre. 

587. Narbonne vetch ( Vicia narhonnensis) is native to 
the Mediterranean region of Europe, Asia and Africa. 
In general appearance it is intermediate between common 
vetch and the horse bean, having tendrils like the former 
but resembling the latter in its thick foliage, which turns 
black in drying. By some writers it has been considered 
the wild original of the horse bean, but this view is not now 
held. 

Its culture and requirements are essentially the same 
as those of common vetch, excepting that it requires more 
warmth for its best growth. It is cultivated for forage to 
a small extent in southern Europe, but under American 
conditions has found no place. 

588. The horse bean {Vicia f aha) in some of its varieties 
at least, is also known as tick bean, field bean, pigeon 
bean, broad bean, and Windsor bean. The last two names 



480 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

refer primarily to the large-seeded varieties used as human 
food, and the first four names to the smaller-seeded sorts 
used for animals. The culture of the horse bean ante- 
dates history, the seeds having been found in several 
places in remains of the stone age, as well as in ancient 
Egypt. What is apparently the wild original has been 
found in Algeria by Schweinfurth and by Trabut. The 
plant was abundantly cultivated in ancient Greece and 
other Mediterranean countries, and is important in 
Europe to-day, as well as in China, India, and Egypt. 
In warm countries it is grown as a winter crop, and in 
very cool regions as a summer crop. 

The plant is a stout, erect annual, growing to a height 
of 2^ to 4^ feet ; leaves pinnate with 2 or 3 pairs of leaflets, 
but no tendrils ; flowers in short, axillary clusters of 2 
to 4 ; corolla white and black. The stem is usually 
simple, but sometimes branched at the base. 

The horse bean is adapted to a cool growing season, 
and will not endure heat. It is not particular in its soil re- 
quirements, except that it be well drained and rich in humus. 

The cultivated varieties are very numerous, probably 
over 100 occurring in different parts of the world. They 
are distinguished mainly by the size, shape, and color 
of the seed. Most of them are adapted to spring planting, 
but a few varieties may be planted in fall in England. 

In England and Germany they are mostly planted in 
early spring. The seed is sown broadcast, or preferably 
drilled, in rows 8 to 14 inches wide. The amount of seed 
to an acre depends on the size of the seed, which varies 
according to variety. With the common horse bean about 
4 bushels to an acre is used, a bushel weighing about 56 
pounds. 

For green feed the plants are cut when in bloom; for 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 481 

seed, when the lower pods turn black. The shocks are 
allowed to cure about two weeks before thrashing. 

Horse beans have found but a small place in American 
agriculture. As a winter crop they succeed well in Cali- 
fornia, where they are grown to some extent as a vegetable, 
and have been used as a green-manure crop. On the north 
Pacific Coast, where climatic conditions are much like 
those of Europe, they also succeed well. The hardy 
winter varieties will usually survive the winter if planted 
in fall as far north as the District of Columbia. Farther 
south they have, in some seasons at least, given splendid 
results when thus planted, and would probably succeed 
generally. If planted in the spring, they suffer severely 
from hot summer weather, the herbage turning black. 
Even as far north as Ontario they suffer from heat, and 
after 15 years' experimental work at the Ontario Agricul- 
tural College, the conclusion is reached that the crop is not 
to be recommended, as the results are usually unsatis- 
factory. The best yield of seed, 29 bushels to an acre, 
was secured in an unusually cool season. 

In Germany, the yield of green feed to an acre ranges 
from 14,000 to 20,000 pounds, and of seed from 25 to 50 
bushels. When gro\\Ti for green feed, horse beans are 
often mixed with peas or common vetch. 

589. Bird or tufted vetch {Vicia cracca) is a perennial 
species native to Eurasia, also occurring naturally in 
North America from Newfoundland to New Jersey, west 
to Minnesota and perhaps to Washington. Bird vetch 
closely resembles hairy vetch, but the herbage is less 
pubescent. In Europe bird vetch occurs as a weed in 
grain fields, and the commercial seed is that separated 
from the grain. It is commonly mixed with that of 
Vicia hirsuta and Vicia tetrasperma. 
2i 



482 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

The adaptations and culture of the plant are essentially 
the same as those of hairy vetch. At the Ontario Agri- 
cultural College it produced yields of green forage during 
2 years of 2.2 and 3.9 tons to an acre, somewhat more 
than that produced by common vetch, but less than 
that of hairy vetch. 

The native form is sometimes abundant in moist mead- 
ows in New England, but as it turns black in curing, is 
not always welcomed. 

590. The Tangier pea {Lathyrus tingitanus) is an annual 
legume, native to North Africa, and similar in a general 
way to the garden sweet pea, but much more vigorous in 
growth. The flowers are deep red and smaller than the 
sweet pea. As an ornamental the Tangier pea has long 
been known. As a forage crop it was first grown and 
recommended by Trabut in Algeria. 

It is adapted to about the same conditions as the sweet 
pea. In the North it must be planted in the spring ; in 
the South and on the Pacific Coast, in the fall. In com- 
parison with the vetches and other annual legumes used 
as winter green-manure crops in California, the Tangier 
pea has proved to be much more vigorous in growth and 
to choke out weeds perfectly. At the California Experi- 
ment Station a yield of 9 tons of hay to an acre in a 
single cutting has been recorded. Ordinarily, however, it 
will not yield nearly so large a crop as this. 

Both in the Southern States and in western Oregon the 
Tangier pea has given very promising results. 

The seed weighs 60 pounds to the bushel and is nearly 
as large as that of the field pea, though somewhat 
flattened. If broadcasted, about 45 pounds of seed to an 
acre is necessary ; if drilled, 30 pounds is sufficient ; very 
excellent stands have been secured by using only 12 pounds 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 



483 



to the acre. On account of the enormous mass of rather 
stout stems which the Tangier pea produces, it is not 
advisable to plant 
with oats or barley. 
If, however, this is 
done, the amount of 
the seed should be 
reduced one-half. 

In regard to the 
feed value of the 
Tangier pea there 
are but few data 
available. However, 
it is both palatable 
and nutritious, and 
no deleterious effects 
have been noted 
either in Algeria or 
in this country. 

Seed is produced 
well both in western 
Oregon and in Cali- 
fornia, but the pods 
shatter easily. The 
principal difficulty is 
the production of 
seed cheaply enough 
so that the crop can 
be used in competition with other vetches, and its final 
place in American agriculture will depend largely on this. 

At the Puyallup, Washington, Station, Tangier peas 
gave in a small plot a yield of 72.4 bushels of seed to 
an acre. 




Fig. 58. — Tangier pea. 



484 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

As a spring-sown crop Tangier peas produced 2816 
pounds hay to an acre at Dickinson, North Dakota, when 
field peas produced but 1780 pounds. 

591. Flat-podded vetchling {Lathyrus cicera) is an annual, 
native to the Mediterranean region, at least in Europe. 
To a small extent it is cultivated as fodder in Spain, France, 
and Italy. Care must be taken in feeding, however, as 
the seeds, if eaten in quantity, have a dangerous 
effect. 

The stems are weak; the leaves pale green with one 
pair of leaflets, the upper with a simple tendril ; flowers 
red. 

The flat-podded vetchling has made fine growth during 
several years at Chico, California, when planted in fall. 
It seems to possess no character, however, in which it is 
superior to common vetch, and it is not likely to be much 
grown. Planted at Arlington Farm, Virginia, in spring 
the plants languish with the summer heat and die 
without blooming. 

592. Ochrus (Lathyrus ochrus) is an annual, native to 
the Mediterranean region, where it is cultivated to a slight 
extent for fodder, especially on the island of Crete and in 
Catalonia, Spain. From all other cultivated species of 
Lathyrus it is easily distinguished by the foliage, which 
consists mainly of the broadened petioles, only the upper 
leaves having 1 or 2 pairs of leaflets and a branched tendril. 
The solitary flowers are bright yellow. 

Ochrus has grown very well in California when planted 
in fall. At Jackson, California, a small plot yielded at 
the rate of 30,855 pounds green weight to an acre. In 
plats at Chico, California, its behavior has not been 
consistent, some years being very good, other years very 
poor. At Puyallup, Washington, the average yield of 



VETCHES ANT) VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 



485 



seed from 3 plats was 8.7 bushels to an acre. The plant 
possesses no visible advantage over common vetch, and 
there is no apparent reason why it should be recommended. 

593. Comparison of vetch species. — On the Pacific 
Coast all the vetch species are admirably adapted and in 
California a number of them have been tested as green- 
manure crops. In the data shown in the following table, 
it will be observed that the yield of hairy vetch is small 
if plowed under early, but if left to reach its maximum 
growth exceeds the other species. To a less degree 
common vetch shows the same lack of ability to grow in 
cool winter weather. 

There is little to choose between the vetches in habit 
and feeding quality where they all succeed well. On this 
account preference is given mainly to those which have 
good seeding habits, and consequently cheaper seed : — 



Yields to an Acre of Different Species of Vetches in 

California 





Chi CO 


Chico 


Southern 
California 
Substation 


Berkeley 


Species 


Green Weight 
March 18, 1908 


Green Weight 
March 16, 1909 


Green Weight 
June 4, 1909 


Green 
Weight 


Ervil .... 
Purple vetch 
Woolly-pod 

vetch . 
Hairy vetch 
Common vetch 
Scarlet vetch . 
Narbonne vetch 
Horse bean 
Tangier pea 


Pounds 

27,646 

19,826 

18,876 

11,616 

7,623 


Pounds 

21,017 

27,469 

25,074 

5,880 
2,831 


Pounds 

17,240 


Pounds 


44,255 
35,921 


32,670 
25,410 
18,150 
25,400 


51,152 








10,890 
13,794 


21,130 
12,840 


68,970 
34,485 







486 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



OTHER LEGUMES 

594. Fenugreek {Trigonella foenutn-grcecum) is a native 
of the Mediterranean region of Europe, but extends to 
central Asia and north Africa. As a cultivated crop it 
is mainly grown in Turkey and India, and harvested prin- 
cipally for the seeds, but in India the very young plants 
are also used as a condiment. The seeds have a peculiar 
characteristic odor and possess definite medicinal qualities. 
Large quantities are imported into the United States to 
use in '' condition powders " for horses. 

Fenugreek is an erect plant with usually several stems 
from the same root. The leaves are clover-like, but the 
pods are long and pointed. The plant is remarkably free 
from insect enemies and diseases. 

Fenugreek has thus far been found a useful plant in the 
United States only in Cahfornia, where in Ventura and 
Orange counties it is now largely used as an orchard green- 
manure crop. The recognition of its value for this 
purpose dates back to 1903, when it was first distributed 
by the California Experiment Station. It is best adapted 
to the region near the seacoast, but has succeeded in all 
the citrus districts of the state. 

The yield of green matter to an acre compares favorably 
with other legumes used for the purpose and the seed cost 
for an acre is very low. At Santa Paula, California, the 
green weight of fenugreek to an acre was estimated to be 
11,745 pounds and common vetch 19,140 pounds; in the 
San Joaquin valley a yield of 15,518 pounds green fenu- 
greek to an acre is recorded. 

Fenugreek prefers loam soils but is not very exacting. 
In California the seed is sown either broadcast or drilled, 
using 30 pounds to the acre, if for a green-manure crop. 



VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 487 

The usual time for seeding is September in southern Cali- 
fornia and October in northern California. 

For seed production only 15 or 20 pounds to an acre 
is sown. The crop is cut with a mower when the pods are 
mature, cured in windrows, and thrashed with a grain 
thrasher. Some care is necessary in curing to avoid loss 
by shattering. The average yield of seed to an acre in the 
best seed district is 1500 pounds. The seed weighs 60 
pounds to the bushel. 

595. Lupines {Lupinus spp.). — Several annual species 
of lupine are much cultivated in southern and central 
Europe both as forage and green manure. The important 
species are white lupine {Lupinus albus), Egyptian lupine 
(L. termis), yellow lupine (L. luteus), and blue lupine 
(L. angustifolius). 

All of these species are adapted to a cool growing 
season, and succeed best on sandy loams. They will not 
endure much Kme in the soil nor an undrained subsoil. 
Light frosts are not injurious to the young seedlings. 

Lupines are planted in early spring in northern coun- 
tries, and in fall in regions where only light frosts occur. 
They are utilized as pasturage, green feed, or hay for sheep 
and goats, but other animals will not eat them on account 
of their bitter taste. The bitter substances can be re- 
moved from the hay by soaking in cold water, and when 
thus treated the hay is eaten by cows and horses. The 
seeds may be treated by boiling one hour and then 
washing 24 hours in running water. This treatment 
removes the bitter substances, but results in a loss of 
about one-sixth of the dry matter. The disembittered 
seeds furnish a rich proteid feed. 

Lupines have often been tried in America but rarely 
make satisfactory growth. This may be partly due to 



488 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

lack of inoculation, but primarily because they cannot 
well endure the hot summer weather in the eastern United 
States. 

Lupines have grown well in California when planted 
in the fall, and fair results have been obtained in Michigan, 
Massachusetts, Kentucky and Virginia when planted in 
the spring. At the California Foothill Station white 
lupines sown at the rate of 100, 150 and 200 pounds to 
an acre gave green yields of 1739, 2193 and 3819 pounds 
to an acre respectively. Ninety-five pounds of seed to 
an acre drilled gave a green yield of 3348 pounds to 
an acre, as compared to 3819 pounds obtained by broad- 
casting at the rate of 200 pounds to an acre. A sowing 
made October 22 yielded 4846 pounds of green herbage 
to an acre, much more than that from earlier and later 
seedings. 

These yields are small compared with those secured in 
Europe. The average yield in Germany is given as 3600 
pounds hay to an acre. Maximum yields in favorable 
seasons may reach 9000 pounds to an acre. 

596. Serradella (Ornithopus sativus) is an annual legume 
native to the Spanish Peninsula and Morocco. It is cul- 
tivated for forage and green manure in Portugal, Spain, 
France, and Germany, in the last country beginning with 
1842. In America it has thus far found no place. It has 
been tested in a small way at most of the experiment 
stations, but only at one has it been deemed worthy of 
recommendation. At the Massachusetts Experiment 
Station it yielded 10 to 12 tons green weight to an acre, 
containing 19 to 20 per cent water. It was there consid- 
ered better than oats and vetch or cowpeas, and nearly 
as good as soybeans. At Guelph, Ontario, the yield of 
green forage was only 4.7 tons to an acre. 



VETCHES AND VETCII-LIKE PLANTS 489 

Serraclella is a much-branched, slender-stemmed plant 
with pinnate leaves, a stout tap root, umbeled rose- 
colored flowers, and pods which break into joints, these 
constituting the commercial seed. Each joint is reticu- 
lated on the outside, but about one-fifth of these are 
empty. Well-grown plants of serradella reach a height 
of 2 feet. 

Serradella is adapted primarily to moist sandy soils 
and a cool growing season. Unlike its effect on many 
other legumes, lime is not helpful but often deleterious 
to its growth. The young plants will withstand several 
degrees of frost in the spring, but not so much when in 
bloom. 

In Europe serradella is sown in early spring, either alone 
on fall-sown rye or with spring-sown oats, using 40 to 60 
pounds of seed to an acre. The seedlings grow very slowly 
at first, except the root. If sown alone, it may be cut for 
green feed by July. The first cutting of hay is made when 
the blooming has nearly ceased, and a second cutting can 
be made in the fall. The hay must be cured with great 
care, as the leaflets fall off easily. The average yield of 
hay in Germany is said by Werner to be 2500 to 5000 
pounds to an acre. 

Seed is harvested from the second cutting, and the 
yields are said to range from 350 to 1200 pounds to 
an acre. 

Serradella may be found to be useful on moist sandy 
lands in the northernmost states and in Canada, and per- 
haps as a fall-sown crop in the extreme south. Many of 
the failures with this plant have doubtless been due to 
lack of inoculation. 

597. Square-pod pea {Lotus tetragonolohus) is native 
to the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, where 



490 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

it has long been cultivated for the pods and seeds, which 
are used as human food. It is also grown to a small 
extent in England. 

The plant is an annual with weak stems 12 to 18 inches 
long ; leaves trifoliolate ; flowers handsome, scarlet ; 
pods dark colored with wings as broad as the body ; 
seeds large, ovate, brownish. 

The square-pod pea requires much the same conditions 
as the field pea, but is not so productive either of herbage 
or of seed. 

At the California Experiment Station this pea produced 
on small plots yields of green herbage at the rates of 24 and 
26 tons to an acre. 



CHAPTER XXI 

COWPEAS 

The cowpea is really not a pea at all but a bean, being 
indeed the one most commonly cultivated for human 
food in the Old World before the discovery of America. 
Its ease of culture and productivity have combined to 
make it popular in all the southern states. 

598. Botanical origin. — The native home of the cow- 
pea ( Vigna sinensis) is doubtless Central Africa. Through- 
out much of that continent occurs a wild plant differing 
from the cultivated cowpea in having smaller seeds and 
dark pods which coil in ripening. Hybrids of this wild 
plant and the cowpea are readily obtained. Occasionally 
the wild plant is cultivated by African tribes, but ordi- 
narily the cultivated plants are modified, having straw- 
colored pods and somewhat larger seeds. In no other 
region have wild cowpeas been found. 

Cultivated varieties of cowpeas occur through Africa 
and over the southern half of Asia and the adjacent islands. 
The large number and great diversity of the varieties over 
this vast region indicate that its extended culture is very 
ancient. There is, however, no direct evidence on this 
point in the way of seeds from ancient temples or tombs. 

599. Agricultural history. — In the old world, particu- 
larly Africa and Asia, as well as the Mediterranean region 
of Europe, the cowpea is of ancient cultivation for human 

491 



492 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



food. It is without doubt the phaseolus of Phny, Colu- 
mella and other Roman writers, but this name became 
applied also to the kidney-bean following its introduction 
into Europe from America. In Italy, however, the black- 
eye cowpea is still called 
by the same name as 
kidney-beans, namely, 
fagiolo. 

The cowpea early be- 
came introduced into 
the West Indies and was 
well known in Carolina 
as early as 1775. Its 
culture had extended to 
Virginia by 1795, and 
was probably general 
early in the nineteenth 
century. 

In the United States, 

the cowpea has always 

been grown mainly as a 

forage and restorative 

crop, but the seeds, 

particularly of the white 

or nearly white-seeded 

varieties, are commonly 

used as human food, 

especially in the South. 

As early as 1822, several varieties are mentioned by 

American writers, one of which, with buff-colored seeds, 

was called the " Cow " pea. From this variety the name 

has become extended to the whole crop. 

600. Adaptations. — The cowpea is adapted to almost 




Fig, 59. — Cowpea. 



COWPEAS 493 

the same climatic conditions as corn. It requires, how- 
ever, somewhat more heat, as corn will develop at least 
to the " roasting ear " stage in regions too cool for cow- 
peas. In drought resistance there is but slight difference, 
but that is in favor of the cowpea. 

The cowpea is not particular as to soil except that it 
be well drained. It succeeds apparently quite as well on 
sandy soils as on heavy clays. Both in spring and in fall 
the leaves are injured by the least touch of frost, and a 
heavy frost is always fatal. Cowpeas withstand moderate 
shade, sufficiently so at least to be valuable to grow in 
orchards. In heavy shade they are usually much subject 
to mildew. 

601. Importance. — The cowpea is the most important 
legume grown in the area where cotton is cultivated. 
The only statistics available are those which concern 
seed-production. There were harvested for seed in the 
Southern States 209,604 acres in 1909. This is probably 
only a small fraction of the entire acreage planted. 

602. Uses of the crop. — The ancient use of cowpeas 
was as human food, and this is still the case in all Old 
World countries where the crop is grown. In the United 
States, varieties with white or nearly white seeds are 
mainly grown for this purpose, though seeds of any variety 
may be eaten. In California, blackeye cowpeas are grown 
primarily for the seeds, being adapted to drier soils than 
Lima beans. 

Only in the United States are cowpeas grown mainly 
for forage and green manure. As forage, it is especially 
valuable because it will grow in all types of arable soil 
as a short summer crop, requiring but little attention, 
as it is able to smother most weeds, and producing most 
excellent forage either for hay or pasture. Incidentally, 



494 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

it is a splendid restorative crop, which has led to its 
being largely used purely for green manure. 

603. Varietal distinctions. — The varieties of cowpea 
are very numerous. They are distinguished by various 
characters, those of agronomic importance being the 
habit, life-period, disease resistance and differences of 
pods and seeds. 

On the pod and seed characters, three subspecies have 
been recognized, — namely, the catjang, with small erect 
pods and small subcylindric seeds ; the asparagus bean, 
with very long inflated pods which in ripening collapse 
about the kidney-shaped seeds ; and the cowpea, with 
pendent thick-walled pods which preserve their form, and 
containing variously shaped seeds. 

In habit the unsupported plant may be prostrate, lying 
flat on the ground ; procumbent, the mass two to four times 
as broad as high ; low, half-bushy, the mass of vines once 
or twice as broad as high ; tall, half-bushy, the mass taller 
than broad ; erect, not at all vining and taller than broad. 
From a forage standpoint, the half-bushy varieties are 
most valuable, and when planted in corn or other support- 
ing crop their vining habit asserts itself. 

604. Life period. — The life period of the different 
varieties — that is, the time from germination till the 
plant is mature — is a matter of importance, especially 
toward the northern limit of the crop. The cowpea is 
indeterminate in growth — that is, under favorable condi- 
tions of moisture and temperature, it continues to grow 
indefinitely — and the conditions which favor excessive 
vegetative growth inhibit the formation of pods and seeds. 
In other words, the fluctuating variation of the cowpea is 
very great, and many writers have mistaken this for 
hereditary variation. On this account, some arbitrary 



COWPEAS 495 

stage of maturity needs to be selected in order to compare 
varieties. The dates that have been most used are when 
the first pod is ripe and when the majority of the pods are 
ripe, the latter date usually ten to fifteen days later than 
the former. 

The length of the life period varies slightly according to 
season, but markedly depending on date of planting. 
Thus, at the Tennessee Experiment Station, Mooers 
found that the Whippoorwill cowpea varied in life period 
as follows : Planted April 15, 183 days ; May 1, 168 days ; 
May 15, 153 days ; June 5, 132 days ; June 17, 113 days ; 
June 29, 101 days. 

In general, eaiiy varieties of cowpea will mature their 
first pods in 70 to 90 days ; medium varieties, in 90 to 100 
days. Beyond this are all degrees of lateness, some tropi- 
cal sorts not even coming to bloom under conditions in 
Virginia, Mississippi or northern Florida. 

605. Pods and seeds. — The greatest variation in cow- 
peas occurs in the pods and seeds, characters of importance 
in distinguishing varieties. Considering only the true 
cowpeas — that is, excluding the catjangs and asparagus 
beans — they may be divided by their pod and seed char- 
acters into two groups ; namely, kidney and crowder. 
Kidney cowpeas have their pods somewhat compressed, 
and reniform or subreniform seeds. Crowder cowpeas 
have thick-walled, terete pods, and globose, or, if much 
crowded, somewhat disk-form, seeds. The crowder varie- 
ties are not as numerous as the kidney, but nearly every 
color of seeds that occur in the latter may be found in the 
former. Cowpea pods are usually straw-colored, but in 
a few varieties are purple, and in a single known variety 
purple streaked. 

The seeds closely resemble the common kidney-bean, 



496 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

and there is quite as wide a range in the color of the testa. 
On uniformly colored seeds, the testa may be black, 
brown, purple, buff, maroon, pink, or white ; or where 
more than one color is concerned, it may be speckled, 
usually blue speckles on a buff or brown background ; 
or marbled, commonly brown on buff or on maroon ; or 
both marbled and speckled. When the seed is not uni- 
formly colored, the second color is concentrated about the 
eye or hilum in various forms, or else blotched in an irregu- 
lar saddle-shaped area. White cowpeas may be eyed or 
blotched with any of the other colors, or the white may 
be exposed only on a small spot at the chalazal end of the 
seed. In all cowpeas, the germ is yellowish. 

606. Correlations. — But few definite correlations of 
characters have been observed in cowpeas, and much 
breeding work is necessary before these can be considered 
proven. As in all annual legumes, earliness is nearly 
always associated with lessened growth. White-flowered 
cowpeas have their seeds white or mainly so, or coffee- 
colored. All other colors of seeds are associated with 
purple flowers. Purple coloration of the leaves or of 
the leaf-nodes is nearly always associated with purple 
flowers. 

607. Important varieties. — Among the very numerous 
varieties of cowpeas, comparatively few are important 
either commercially or agronomically. Unfortunately, 
some of the commercial names are based wholly on the 
color of the seed, and thus comprise a number of distinct 
varieties under a single designation. 

Whippoorwill. — Probably more than half of the 
acreage of cowpeas in the United States is devoted to this 
variety. It is easily distinguished by its subreniform 
seeds, which are buff marbled with brown. This variety 




PLATE VII. — Groit Cowpeas in a Broadcasted Field in 

Virginia. 



COWPEAS 497 

is also called Shinney and Speckled. It has been known 
in the United States for at least seventy years. 

Iron. — This variety became known first from Barnwell 
County, South Carolina, in 1888. It is especially valuable 
on account of its immunity to rootknot and wilt. The 
seeds are rhomboid, buff in color, decidedly angular, and 
harder than most cowpeas. It is perhaps on this account 
that Iron volunteers to a greater extent than any other 
important variety, the hard seeds resisting decay. The 
Iron is not a heavy seed producer. 

New Era. — Among well-known varieties, this is the 
most bushy in habit and earliest to mature, the first pods 
ripening in about seventy-five days. The seeds are easily 
recognizable, being small, rhomboidal, buff, thickly and 
evenly sprinkled with minute blue specks. 

Groit. — This is a cross between Whippoorwill and New 
Era, the seeds sharing the coloration of both parents, 
apparently superimposed on each other. It is larger and 
more prolific than New Era, and on the whole the best 
forage cowpea for states north of the cotton belt. 

Brabham. — This is a cross between Iron and Whip- 
poorwill, having the immunity of the former, and being 
even more vigorous in growth than the latter. It is later 
than either parent, and in sandy soils very prolific. 

Clay. — This name is given commercially to any buff- 
colored cowpea except Iron. There are several varieties 
with such seeds, differing much in earliness and habit, 
but most of them are quite viny. Those which mature 
their first pods in about 90 days make up most of the seed 
sold as Clay, while those which require 110 days or so 
probably constitute the variety which appears in agronomic 
literature as Wonderful or Unknown. None of the buff- 
seeded varieties except Iron possesses especial merit. 
2k 



498 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Black. — Seedsmen sell all black-seeded cowpeas under 
this name, but there are several varieties. The most 
common are Early Black or Congo, maturing its first 
pods in about 70 days, and ordinary Black, requiring 
about 80 days. Both are decidedly viny, and somewhat 
sprawling. Black is nevertheless popular in some sec- 
tions because the seeds do not decay readily after ripen- 
ing, even if they lie on moist earth. 

Red Ripper. — Commercially all cowpeas with maroon 
seeds are called Red Ripper, but there are at least eight 
varieties with maroon seeds more or less widely grown. In 
a general way, the maroon-seeded varieties closely resemble 
those with buff seeds, and none possesses outstanding 
merit. 

Early Buff. — This is a new variety, the progeny of a 
single seed obtained from Leghorn, Italy, in 1907. It is 
a very prolific, half-bushy variety, maturing about two 
weeks earlier than New Era. The first pods ripen in about 
65 days. It is the earliest variety of over 300 tested at 
Arlington Farm, Virginia, and should prove valuable at 
the northern limit of cowpea culture. 

Blackeye. — Varieties of cowpeas having the seed white 
with a black spot at the hilum are mostly known as 
Blackeye, but among American varieties several possess 
such colored seeds. None of them has a bushy habit 
such as is desirable for forage, but blackeyed varieties 
are grown almost wholly for human food. It is probable 
that the total acreage of blackeyed varieties is exceeded 
by no other sort except Whippoorwill. 

608. Rate and method of seeding. — Cowpeas, when 
planted alone, are sown broadcast, drilled, or in broad 
rows to be cultivated. When broadcasted, one or two 
bushels to an acre are planted ; if drilled, five pecks 



COWPEAS 499 

to an acre is very satisfactory; while in three-foot 
rows, fifteen to twenty pounds is sufficient. 

Formerly cowpeas were often planted in grain stubble 
without further preparation of the ground. This practice 
is now much less common, special preparation of the soil 
being the rule. On account of higher seed prices, as well 
as better yields of both hay and seed, planting in cul- 
tivated rows is becoming more popular. When thus 
planted, two or three cultivations are necessary. 

At the Arkansas Experiment Station, six varieties of 
cowpeas were sown at rates varying from 6.25 pounds to 
100 pounds to an acre. The highest average yield of hay 
was produced from 25 pounds of seed. The heaviest 
yields of hay varied to a considerable extent with the 
variety and amount of seed sown, ranging with the 
Whippoorwill from 12.5 pounds of seed to the Taylor from 
100 pounds of seed. In another experiment with the 
same varieties, it was found that the best seed yields 
were secured by sowing not less than 12.5 nor more 
than 37.5 pounds to an acre. 

At the North Carolina Experiment Station in a three 
years' test of different quantities of seed in 3J foot rows 
with the New Era variety the best yields of hay were 
secured by planting one-half bushel of seed to an acre. 

609. Time of seeding. — Cowpeas should never be 
sown before the ground becomes well warmed. It is 
never advisable to sow them before corn planting time, 
and usually it is better to delay sowing at least two weeks 
later. After this time they can be sown whenever moisture 
conditions are favorable. The latest date for profitable 
sowing is about ninety days before the first killing frost. 

Early sowings are unprofitable because the seed is apt 
to decay in the soil, but even if a perfect stand is secured, 



500 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



the growth is very slow until hot weather comes. Thus, 
Mooers at the Tennessee Experiment Station found that 
Whippoorwill cowpeas sown April 15, May 1, May 15, 
June 5, June 17, and June 29, all became fully mature at 
about the same date ; namely, the middle of October. 
The earliest sowing required 183 days to mature, while 
the latest needed but 101 days. 

If grown primarily for hay, the time of planting should 
be regulated so that the crop is ready to cut at the time 
weather conditions are best. Through most of the cotton 
region rains are less frequent in September and October 
than earlier. 

610. Inoculation. — It is rarely necessary to apply 
bacteria for the production of the cowpea, as natural 
inoculation is quite generally distributed throughout the 
Southern States. 

At the Michigan Experiment Station, investigations 
were conducted to learn the influence of nodules on the 
composition of the cowpea. The following table gives 
the composition of the dry matter in the leaves, stems, 
and roots of inoculated and not inoculated cowpeas : — 





Dry 

Matter 
Grams 


Pro- 
tein 


Nitro- 
gen 


Ash 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 


Potash 


Inoculated : 




Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Percent 


Per Cent 


Percent 


Leaves . 


220.61 


27.08 


4.33 


16.38 


.71 


1.63 


Stems 


220.21 


17.93 


2.87 


12.40 


.65 


3.32 


Roots 


171.15 


5.61 


.89 


5.38 


.62 


1.32 


Not inoculated 














Leaves . 


238.41 


21.52 


3.48 


18.30 


.87 


1.20 


Stems 


315.44 


10.47 


1.67 


9.73 


.83 


2.04 


Roots 


62.75 


12.34 


1.97 


8.57 


.61 


2.53 



COWPEAS 501 

611. Number of cuttings. — Under favorable conditions, 
cowpea plants will sprout again from the base — indeed, 
this will take place indefinitely in a greenhouse plant, but 
the growth becomes greatly reduced. A second crop of 
hay, or at least considerable pasturage, is sometimes se- 
cured if good moisture conditions follow the first cutting, 
as happens not uncommonly near the Gulf coast. Ordi- 
narily, however, but a single cutting of the crop can be 
made. 

612. Hay. — Cowpeas should not be cut for hay until 
the first pods are ripe, and the cutting may be delayed 
until considerably later. After the pods begin to ripen, 
the leaflets are more likely to fall off, especially if the 
plants are attacked by leaf-spot or rust. Unless these 
diseases are serious, the cutting can be delayed until 
many of the pods are ripe. If these are promptly picked, 
a continuous succession of pods will be formed. 

Cowpeas planted thickly, or even in three-foot rows, 
support each other so that they can be cut with an ordinary 
mower, to which it is desirable to add a bunching attach- 
ment. A self-rake reaper is also excellent to harvest 
cowpeas. The vining varieties like Clay, Black, and Red 
Ripper are less easily handled than the more bunchy 
varieties like Whippoorwill and New Era. 

Cowpeas have rather succulent leaves and thick stems, 
so that they are not easily cured except in very favorable 
weather. Also the large leaflets are inclined to mat 
together. In hay making, it is common to use some type 
of shock supporter, as this greatly aids the final stages of 
curing. In curing, the especial points to guard against 
are permitting the leaves to become too dry in the swath 
before raking into windrows, as loss of leaves may result ; 
and making the cocks too large, as the moist stems are 



502 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



apt to favor mildewing, especially of the pods. Even 
with favorable weather, quick curing is impossible owing 
to succulency of the stems and green pods. Should the 
hay be wetted by rain at any stage of curing, it should 
not be handled again until the surface is well dried. 

Even when poorly cured — or indeed, moldy and 
decayed — cowpea hay is eaten by animals, a partial 
compensation for the difficulty of curing it satisfactorily. 

It will be noted that the percentage of protein, and fat, 
as well as of the ash and fiber increases from first bloom 
until the pods are fully formed, while the carbohydrates 
decrease markedly. Chemical composition, therefore, 
agrees with other considerations in indicating that the 
best time to cut cowpeas for hay is when the first pods 
become mature. The fiber of the cowpea vines when 
mature is fairly strong and from time to time its use as a 
textile has been suggested. 

In the following table is shown the composition of the 
cowpea at different stages of growth : — 

Table showing Composition of Cowpea Hay at Different 
Stages of Maturity. Water-free 



Stage op Development 



Full bloom 
Pods forming 
Pods formed 



Protein 


Fat 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


17.86 


4.04 


18.39 


52.28 


19.93 


3.06 


18.52 


50.58 


21.38 


5.01 


29.05 


32.59 



Ash 
Per Cent 

7.43 

7.91 

11.97 



613. Hay yields. — The yield of cowpea hay ranges 
from one to three tons to the acre, varying according to 
variety, soil and weather conditions. 



COWPEAS 



503 



Table showing Acre Yield in Pounds of Cowpea Hay at 
Various Experiment Stations 



Variety 


< 
S 
< 

< 

< 


< 

m 
"if, 
< 

< 

3297 

4872 
3990 
2756 


H 
K 

a 
w 

Q 

3850 
3960 

3620 
3700 


< 

3 
« 
o 
w 
O 


< 
a 

l-H 


m 

< 

m 

< 


M 
0< 
04 
K( 

m 

h-4 

m 
m 

2880 
2556 
2916 
2628 
2160 
2350 
2090 
2420 
2090 
1369 


M 
« 

o 

CO 

3720 
3660 

3660 
3350 
4270 
4420 


1-5 


< 
g 

o 

« 

O 

H 
« 
O 


Whippoorwill 

Clay 


2720 

2852 


16892 
20664 
21730 

25256 
21812 

16400 


4476 
4219 


5260 
3880 


16600 
14000 
14600 
16200 

11000 


3424 

3688 


Unknown 

New Era 

Iron 

Red Ripper 

Black 

Taylor 

Large Blaokeye .... 
Extra Early Blackeye . 
Michigan Favorite . 
Groit 


314;? 

2310 
2078 
3720 
2239 


5200 
2727 
3872 
3339 
3175 


3893 

4877 


4280 


4230 
2702 
3041 
2803 
162S 




3190 
3270 

2650 
3450 




4460 




J^Qjin 




2769 
4325 


4340 


3290 
3050 
3350 
3350 


15000 
13600 


2560 
2602 
2400 


1416 



























614. Feeding value. — The high feedmg value of cow- 
pea hay has long been recognized and it has been used 
extensively for all kinds of stock. It is particularly high 
in protein, and where properly cared for, furnishes one of 
the cheapest feeds for the modern farm. 

Experiments in the feeding of cowpea hay in compari- 
son with other feeds have been repeatedly made at various 
experiment stations throughout the country. The Ten- 
nessee Station found that 6 to 10 pounds of cowpea hay 
could be substituted for 3 to 5 pounds of cotton-seed meal 
in beef production. In the production of milk and butter 
this station reports that 1^ pounds of chopped pea hay is 
equivalent to one pound of wheat bran, and 3 pounds of 

1 Green weight. 



504 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

chopped pea hay to one pound of cotton-seed meal. In a 
comparison of cowpea hay with timothy hay for wintering 
yearhngs, it was found that the steers made nearly 50 per 
cent better gains where the cowpea hay was used. In a 
three months' test at the North Carolina Experiment 
Station with two Percheron mares used as a team, the 
rations differed only in the use of 10 pounds of cowpea 
hay in one and the same quantity of wheat bran in the 
other. The horse fed bran just held its own, while the 
animal fed cowpea hay gained a little. 

The high price of cowpea seed prevents its use as a feed, 
although its composition indicates that it is a richer feed 
than wheat bran. Excellent results were obtained 
by the Alabama Experiment Station by feeding cowpea 
seed to fattening hogs. More lean meat was found in the 
bodies of the pigs fed cowpeas than in those fed corn meal 
only. Cracked or split seeds, and also whole seeds have 
been fed to poultry with splendid results. Not only were 
the fowls kept in good condition, but a good production 
of eggs resulted, even in the winter months. 

The straw obtained when cowpea seed is secured by run- 
ning the vines through a thrashing machine is valuable as 
feed. Certain types of machines chop the straw so that 
it is in fine condition for feed. There is, however, lack 
of experimental data with regard to the feeding value of 
this straw. Reports from farmers and others who have 
fed the straw indicate that it is an excellent feed. 

615. Cowpeas in broadcast mixtures. — To furnish 
support to the vines as well as to facilitate curing, cowpeas 
are often planted in combination with some other crop. 
When broadcasted or drilled, millet, sorghum, Johnson- 
grass, or soybeans may thus be used. The ideal mixture 
would be a stiff-stemmed easily curing grass that matures 



COWPEAS 505 

with the cowpea. Such a grass would prevent matting 
of the leaves, and otherwise promote aeration and drying 
of the shocks. None of the above-named plants quite 
fulfills these requirements. Millet of any variety matures 
earlier than the cowpea, and often is too small for support. 
Amber sorghum is excellent from the standpoint of size 
and time of maturity, but the juicy stems do not cure 
easily. Johnson-grass is excellent wherever it is not objec- 
tionable as a weed. The newly introduced Sudan-grass 
promises to be exactly what is needed. Soybeans help 
support the cowpeas, and with proper choice of variety, 
simultaneous maturity is easily secured, but the mixture 
does not cure much more easily than cowpeas alone. 

In seeding such mixtures, enough seed should be used 
to secure a half stand, or better, of each. One bushel of 
cowpeas and half a bushel of Amber sorghum an acre gives 
excellent results ; if millet is used, 15 to 20 pounds is suffi- 
cient. Johnson-grass seed is so poor in quality as a rule 
that at least a bushel should be used, with a bushel of 
cowpeas to an acre. Where a soybean-cowpea mixture 
is used, better results are usually secured if the former 
predominates, using one bushel of soybeans and one-half 
bushel of cowpeas to the acre. 

616. Cowpea mixtures not broadcasted. — Cowpeas 
are very widely used for planting in between the rows of 
corn. When thus used, the seed is sown at the rate of 
about three pecks an acre after the last cultivation of the 
corn. Usually the crop is allowed to mature, and some of 
the pods picked, and the remainder of the crop is pastured. 
In some regions, however, the cowpeas are cut for hay 
after the corn has been harvested. If this is done, it is 
desirable to cut the corn stems close to the ground, as 
otherwise the stubble will interfere with a mower. Where 



506 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

the corn is not cut close to the ground, heavy wooden 
rakes are sometimes used to harvest cowpea vines. 

Another method of sowing cowpeas in corn is to plant 
the seed close to the corn plants after the last cultivation 
of that crop. The cowpea vines then climb up the corn 
stalks and add materially to the amount of herbage. 
When the mixture is thus grown, it is usually preserved 
as silage. The cowpeas add considerably to the value 
of the silage, but also increase somewhat the difficulty 
of harvesting, as the vines bind the corn stalks together. 

617. Growing cowpeas for seed. — The great bulk of 
the cowpea seed grown in the United States is hand-picked. 
When this is done, the vines should be picked over two 
times in order to secure the maximum yields. Hand-pick- 
ing, however, necessarily means a high price for the seed. 

The vines may be cut when half or more of the pods 
are ripe. The riper the pods, the more easy the curing, 
but the less valuable the residual straw for feed. The 
mowing is very satisfactorily done with a self -rake reaper. 
If this is not available, an ordinary mowing machine may 
be used, but it is very desirable to use with it a bunching 
attachment. Bean harvesters which cut the stems just 
beneath the surface of the ground are very satisfactory in 
sandy soils, but not in clay soils. 

In thrashing cowpeas with an ordinary grain separator 
many of the seeds are cracked even when the speed of the 
cylinders is much reduced. The vines too are inclined to 
wrap about the cylinders, necessitating frequent stoppings. 
The use of sharpened teeth on the cylinders or concaves 
or both prevents this clogging, and also greatly reduces 
the percentage of seeds cracked. 

618. Pollination. — The cowpea is completely self- 
fertile, flowers protected from insects setting pods normally. 



COWPEAS 



507 



Insect visitors are numerous, but they are attracted mainly 
to the extra-floral nectaries at the base of each flower. 
Natural cross-pollination is usually very rare, but in a few 
locaHties, as at the Michigan Experiment Station, occurs 
abundantly. This is probably due to bumblebees, but 
exact observations are lacking. Through such chance 
crosses the majority of American varieties of cowpeas 
have probably arisen. 

619. Seed yield. — Varieties of cowpeas vary strikingly 
in their seed production, the bunch varieties usually yield- 
ing more seed than the trailing sorts. Moreover, the 
yield of seed with the same variety varies greatly from 
year to year, depending upon weather conditions and 
according to locality. In favorable seasons, good produc- 
ing varieties yield from fifteen to thirty bushels to the 
acre, while in unfavorable seasons the same varieties may 
yield only five to ten bushels to the acre. 

Table showing Acre Yield of Cowpea Seed at Various 
Experiment Stations 



Variety 


< 
< 
< 


03 
< 

< 
< 


< 

< 

Q 
Bu. 


< 

3 

H 

o 

W 

O 


< 
Q 


05 
< 

< 


o 
to 
m 


< 

:2;o 


< 

B K 
O < 




Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Whippoorwill 


12.4 


25.6 


13.2 


25.3 


18.3 


11.5 


14.0 


11.7 


13.8 


Clay . . . 












10.8 


9.8 


6.6 


34.3 


5.3 


10.9 


14.4 


7.0 


13.3 


Unknown 












14.7 


2.5 




30.5 








8.8 




New Era 












22.0 


39.9 


15.6 




14.0 


12.4 


14.0 


11.9 


24.2 


Iron . . . 












14.9 




7.4 




6.3 




17.5 


9.9 


9.3 


Red Ripper . 












19.3 


11.9 




27.7 






8.3 


8.9 




Black . . 












21.1 


15.7 


7.4 


19.9 




11.1 


18.6 




13.0 


Taylor . . 












23.6 


19.9 


4.9 






11.9 






11.5 


I^arge Blackeye 










17.0 


23.6 


5.6 


31.3 




12.7 


14.8 


9.8 


21.7 


Extra Early Blackeye 








16.4 


29.1 


5.4 




14.2 




10.6 


9.2 


9.9 


Michigan Favorite 












8.2 




19.3 


11.2 


11.4 


7.9 




Groit 












8.2 








14.8 







608 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



620. Proportion of seed and hulls. — The method of 
gathering seed by hand, where the peas are planted in 
corn, is a very common practice throughout the South. 
Fields grown to cowpeas alone for seed-production are 
often hand picked. Generally the pods are picked at a 
price for each hundred pounds. From the results obtained 
at the Alabama and Arkansas Agricultural Experiment 
Stations, it appears that the proportion of seed and hulls 
varies according to the variety and locality. 

Table showing Pounds of Cowpea Seed in 100 Pounds 

OF Pods 



Variety 



Large White Crowder 
Large Blackeye . 

Taylor 

Ex. Early Blackeye 

Black 

Lady 



Ala- 


Ar- 


bama 


kansas 


83 


75.0 


77 


71.2 


77 


64.7 


76 


75.0 


76 


63.2 


74 


63.2 



Variety 



Whippoorwill 
New Era . 
Red Ripper 
Wonderful 
Iron 
Clay . . 



Ala- 
bama 



73 
73 
71 
70 
69 
67 



Ar- 
kansas 



67.3 

61.8 
66.0 

65.3 
58.3 



621. Seeds. — Cowpea seed is usually considered to 
weigh 60 pounds to the bushel, but this varies consid- 
erably according to the variety. On the basis of 60 pounds, 
the number of seeds to the bushel has been calculated by 
Duggar, by Newman and by Morse. Duggar used the 
weight of 100 seeds as a basis, while Newman counted the 
number in one ounce, and Morse counted the number in 
three samples of one ounce each. The largest seeded 
varieties contain less than 100,000 seeds to the pound, 
while the smallest seeded catjangs contain five times as 
many. The common commercial varieties average about 
150,000 seeds to the pound. The figures for standard 
and other varieties are shown in the following table : — 



COWPEAS 



509 



CowPEA Seeds, Number to the Ounce and Bushel and 
Weight of 100 Seeds of Different Varieties 





Seeds in One 


Weight 
OF 100 


Seeds in 60 Pounds 


Variety 






Seeds 






Newman 


Morse 


Duggar 


Duggar 


Newman 


Morse 








Grams 








Black Crowder . 




102 








97120 


Taylor . . . 


107 


117 


28.72 


94634 


102720 


112320 


Black .... 


141 


149 


22.07 


123153 


135360 


143040 


Red Ripper . . 


164 


151 


20.89 


130110 


157440 


144960 


Unknown 


171 


179 


18.86 


144117 


164160 


171840 


Clay .... 


165 


181 


17.86 


151629 


158400 


173760 


Whippoorwill 


162 


195 


17.98 


150621 


155520 


187200 


Groit .... 





202 








193920 


Iron .... 


194 


240 






186240 


230400 


New Era . . . 


223 


278 


11.49 


236545 


214080 


266880 


Catjang, 21295 D 




324 








311040 


Catjang, 25144 




491 








471360 



Small-seeded varieties like New Era are cheaper on 
account of the greater number of seeds, and because the 
percentage of broken seeds is usually less. This fact is 
becoming recognized by seedsmen, and therefore a slightly 
higher price is asked for small-seeded varieties. . One 
bushel of New Era contains nearly 50 per cent more seeds 
than the same measure of Whippoorwill. 

622. Viability. — Seed not properly cured or stored 
quickly loses its viability. For this reason a germination 
test is always advisable. 

Good seed, especially of small-seeded varieties, may re- 
tain its viabihty for several years. The following table 
gives the germination of seed kept for various periods of 
time in a storeroom : — • 



510 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



Viability of Cowpea Seeds of Standard Varieties when 
4, 7 AND 10 Years Old 



Variety 



Whippoorwill . . . 
New Era .... 

Iron 

Clay Crowder . . . 

Clay 

Black 

Taylor 

Blackeye .... 
Red Ripper . . . 

Groit 

Michigan Favorite . 
Extra Early Blackeye 



Seed 4 
Years Old 



Per cent 

96.0 

73.0 

60.5 

42.0 

38.0 

79.0 

50.0 

22.0 

3.5 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 



Seed 7 
Years Old 



Per cent 

93.5 

61.0 

17.5 

42.0 

8.0 

82.0 

26.5 

3.5 

0.5 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 



Seed 10 
Years Old 



Per cent 

79.5 

18.0 

14.5 

9.0 

1.5 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 



Ordinarily, however, seed over two years old has lost 
much of its viability. Seeds which have been wetted or 
which are dead become duller and darker in color ; there- 
fore uniformly bright colored seeds should be selected. 

623. Root system. — The root system of the cowpea 
is deep for an annual, there being a well-developed tap- 
root with a number of large branch roots. These roots 
spreading horizontally for a short distance, go deeply 
into the subsoil, thus enabling the plant to draw freely 
upon the minerals and water below the reach of the shal- 
lower-rooted crops. 

At the Storrs Connecticut Experiment Station, an 
investigation was conducted upon the amount of stubble 
and roots, and distribution of the roots of the cowpea. 
The following table gives the amount of roots at different 
depths : — 




PLATE VIII. 

Upper Left. Seeds of Ten Varieties of Soybeans ; 

Center Left. Seeds of Ten Varieties of Cowpeas ; 

Lower Left. Seeds of Six Varieties of Velvet-beans ; 

Upper Right. Pod of Florida Velvet-bean; 

Lower Right. Pod of Yokohama Bean. 



COWPEAS 511 

Stubble and first 6 in. of roots 912 lb. an acre 

Second 6 in. of roots ( 6-12 in.) 45 lb. an acre 

Third 6 in. of roots (12-18 in.) 54 lb. an acre 

Fourth 6 in. of roots (18-24 in.) 34 lb. an acre 

Fifth 6 in. of roots (24-30 in.) 63 lb. an acre 

Sixth 6 in. of roots (30-36 in.) 59 lb. an acre 

Seventh 6 in. of roots (36-42 in.) 40 lb. an acre 

At the Delaware Experiment Station, it was found that 
the cowpea did not have more than 10 per cent of the total 
weight in the roots. 

624. Disease resistance. — In the United States, only 
two diseases of the cowpea can be considered serious ; 
namely, rootknot, caused by the nematode {Heterodera 
radicicola) ; and wilt, caused by a Fusarium on the roots. 
The Iron variety — first found in Barnwell County, South 
Carolina, a region infested by these diseases — is almost 
perfectly immune to both. Orton has found that the 
immunizing character is transmitted to crosses. One 
such cross, the Brabham, whose parents are Iron and 
Whippoorwill, has become very popular in the Atlantic 
coastal region of the Southern States. 

Several other diseases attack the cowpea, — among 
them rust ( Uromyces phaseoli), white leaf -spot (Amero- 
sporium economicum) , red leaf-spot {Cercospora cruenta) 
and mildew (Sphaerotheca sp.). Most standard varieties 
of cowpeas are immune to rust, and the other diseases are 
rarely serious on the best varieties. 

625. Insect enemies. — The leaves of cowpeas are more 
or less subject to attack by various insects, but this damage 
is seldom serious. 

The seeds, however, are much subject to injury by two 
species of weevil (Pachymerus chinensis and P. quadri- 
maculatus) whose habits are practically identical. The 
weevil lays its eggs on the pods of the cowpea in the field 



512 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

or on the seeds when in storage. The greatest amount of 
damage is done when the peas are in storage. Each female 
lays as a rule 1 egg on a seed, but this does not deter other 
females from doing the same. The larva upon hatching 
burrows into the seed, if necessary first penetrating the 
pod. Under very favorable conditions the whole life 
cycle from egg to adult may take place in 18 days, but 
under ordinary conditions 30 days or more is required. 
Under indoor conditions at Washington, D.C., 6 or 7 
broods occur in a year. This rapid reproduction continues 
until all the peas are practically all destroyed. 

Fumigation by carbon bisulfide is probably the best 
method of destroying the weevils in stored seeds. The 
seeds are put in an airtight bin or other receptacle and 
fumigated 48 hours, using 2 to 3 pounds of carbon bisul- 
fide for each 1000 cubic feet of space. The bisulfide 
is poured in shallow pans or dishes on top of the seed, and 
as the gas volatilizes, it sinks between the seeds, as it is 
heavier than air. When the fumigation is complete, 
the seed should be thoroughly aired, as otherwise the 
germination may be affected. 



CHAPTER XXII 

SOYBEANS 

The soybean is the most productive as regards seed of 
any legume adapted to temperate climates. This fact 
alone gives the crop a high potential importance and in- 
sures its greater agricultural development in America. At 
the present time the soybean is most largely grown for 
roughage, but the high value of the seed for human food, 
as well as animal feed and for oil, will in all probability 
result in its being more and more grown for the seed. 

626. Agricultural history. — The soybean, or soja-bean, 
is a plant of ancient cultivation in Japan, China, Korea 
and Manchuria, and to a much less extent in northern 
India and in the highlands of Java. As grown in these 
countries, it is used mainly for human food, the beans 
being prepared in various ways. A large amount of the 
beans are utilized by first extracting the oil. In this 
case the bean cake is used both for cattle food and as a 
fertilizer. 

The soybean was first cultivated in the United States 

in 1829, but it apparently attracted but little attention 

until 1854, when two varieties were brought back from 

Japan by the Perry expedition. Other varieties were 

introduced from time to time, among them the Mammoth, 

which was introduced previous to 1882. It is largely due 

to the introduction of this variety that the soybean has 

become an i;nportant crop in the United States, as a very 
2l 513 



514 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



large percentage of the acreage is still planted to this 
variety. Between the years 1900 and 1910, the United 
States Department of Agriculture introduced about 250 
varieties from all portions of the Orient. In Europe a 
number of varieties were introduced by Haberlandt of 
Vienna in 1875, who experimented with them for a num- 
ber of years. The crop, 
however, never obtained 
any great importance in 
Europe, but is cultivated 
to a limited extent, espe- 
cially in France and 
Italy. 

Beginning with 1908, 
large amounts of soy- 
beans were exported from 
Manchuria to Europe 
and the United States. 
The beans were utilized 
for extracting the oil, 
which was used for vari- 
ous industrial purposes, 
and the bean cake was 
used as cattle food. This 
trade has had the effect 
of increasing interest in the soybean crop, especially from 
the standpoint of producing seed. 

The total yield of seed in Manchuria during 1909 is 
estimated at 2,000,000 tons, of which over one-half is 
exported as seed, and three-fourths of the remainder as 
oil cake. 

627. Botany. — The erect or nearly erect form of the 
soybean, as cultivated in Japan and Manchuria, is not 




Fig. 60. — Soybean. 



SOYBEANS 515 

known to grow wild. The nearest wild relative of the 
cultivated plant is a slender-stemmed vining plant with 
smaller flowers, pods and seeds. This has usually been 
considered a distinct species under the name of Glycine 
ussuriensis, and occurs wild in Japan, Manchuria and 
China. The Indian varieties of soybeans are quite inter- 
mediate between this wild plant and the Japanese and 
Manchurian varieties, being for the most part rather 
slender-stemmed, vining, small-flowered and small-seeded 
varieties. A critical study of an extensive series of 
varieties shows that all intergrades between the wild 
plant and the cultivated erect forms exist, so that there 
can be but little doubt that but one species is represented. 
The usual botanical designation for this species is Gly- 
cine soja, but under recent botanical codes it must be 
changed to Soja max. If two species are to be recognized, 
then both are cultivated, as some of the Indian varieties 
are much more like the wild soybean than they are like 
the erect Japanese varieties. The large number of varieties 
of the soybean and the great range of differences in these 
varieties indicate a very ancient cultivation. 

The flowers of the soybean are small, white or purple, 
and borne on short axillary racemes, which usually bear 
eight to fifteen flowers in a cluster, but the number may be 
as high as thirty-five. 

The pods of most varieties are compressed, though some 
are nearly terete, each bearing two or three seeds, or rarely 
four. The pods vary in length according to variety from 
three-quarters of an inch to three inches, and there may 
be considerable variation even on the same plant. The 
pods are commonly borne in clusters of three to five, in 
extreme cases as many as twelve. On single plants over 
400 pods have been counted. The pods are gray or tawny 



516 FORAGE PLANTS AND TUEIR CULTURE 

or sometimes black. Gray pods always bear gray pubes- 
cence, while the tawny pods have tawny pubescence. 
Black pods may have either color as to pubescence. 

The variation in the seeds of the soybean is very great. 
Some are nearly globose, others much flattened, but the 
great majority are elliptical in outline, the thickness 
less than the breadth. The largest seeded sorts contain 
about 2000 seeds to the pound, while the smallest seeded 
contain about 7000. The color of the testa shows the fol- 
lowing range of colors : straw yellow, olive yellow, olive, 
green, brown and black. In a very few varieties, the 
testa may be bicolored. Among such combinations are 
green or yellow with a saddle of black, and brown and 
black in concentric bands. On heterozygote plants, the 
seeds are often irregularly two-colored, but these do not 
breed true. The embryo or germ may be either yellow 
or green. It is green in all the green-seeded varieties and 
in some of the black-seeded ones, in all others being 
yellow. 

628. Description. — The soybean is an annual, and 
strictly determinate in growth; that is, the whole plant 
reaches maturity as the pods ripen, and no further growth 
takes place. Most of the cultivated varieties are erect 
and branching, the main axis being well defined. With 
few exceptions such varieties have decidedly stout stems. 
In other sorts the stems and branches are somewhat 
twining and weak, so that the plant is more or less procum- 
bent. All intergrades between these types of growth 
exist, some sorts being slender-stemmed with the branches 
more or less twining. The height of the stem varies accord- 
ing to the variety from six inches to six feet. In general, 
the earliest varieties are the most dwarfed. 

All soybeans are hairy plants, no smooth variety being 



SOYBEANS 517 

known. The hairiness occurs in two colors, grayish and 
tawny. The tawny pubescence is nearly always associated 
with dark-colored pods and usually with purple flowers. 
The leaves of the soybean show large variation in size, 
shape and color. The leaflets are usually ovate-lanceo- 
late, but in some varieties are narrowly lanceolate or 
almost linear. In broad-leaved varieties they may be 
nearly orbicular. With few exceptions the leaves of the 
soybeans begin to turn yellow as the pods ripen and usually 
all have fallen by the time the pods are mature. In a few 
sorts, however, the leaves persist and retain their green 
color even after all of the pods have ripened. 

629. Soil adaptations. — Soybeans are not particular 
in their soil requirements. Even on poor soil they will 
make a satisfactory growth, provided they are inoculated, 
but on such soils the growth is rarely as good as is made 
by cowpeas. They succeed best on loams and clays, but 
the Mammoth variety also does admirably on sandy or 
silty soils. They are not sensitive to an excess of moisture, 
although they will not thrive in a soil where water stands 
for any considerable length of time. In marked contrast 
to their ability to grow on wet soils is the fact that the 
soybean is also decidedly drought resistant, much more 
so than cowpeas. Unfortunately, however, rabbits are 
very fond of the soybean, and in the semi-arid regions the 
danger of damage from these animals is a serious dis- 
advantage. 

630. Climatic adaptations. — In the United States, soy- 
beans show almost exactly the same range of climatic 
adaptation as varieties of corn. Early varieties will 
mature northward wherever corn will mature. South- 
ward, however, the soybean does not seem to be adapted 
to as extreme climatic conditions as the corn ; for example, 



518 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

under Florida conditions, soybeans seldom grow normally. 
In southern Louisiana it is a common phenomenon for 
the Mammoth soybean to make a satisfactory growth, 
but the pods do not fill. Some very late varieties tested 
at Arlington Farm, Virginia, failed to bloom when killed 
by frost at the end of 150 days. Such varieties were 
mainly from the highlands of northern India, where a 
much longer growing season occurs. 

Soybeans will withstand considerable frost, both when 
young and old. Some varieties will in the fall withstand 
temperatures as low as 27° Fahrenheit without serious 
injury to the leaves. If the pods are fairly well filled 
before a killing frost occurs, they will usually ripen 
satisfactorily. 

631. Importance. — The soybean has been slowly but 
steadily increasing in importance in America during the 
past 20 years. Its relative importance is less than that 
of either the field pea or the cowpea. 

632. Desirable characters in soybean varieties. — As 
the number of soybean varieties is very large, and as new 
sorts are easily secured by crossing, the most desirable 
characters, both for forage and for seed-production, need 
to be considered. In this crop as in others, yield is the 
most important single desideratum. Secondary consider- 
ations are habit, coarseness, ability to hold leaves, color 
of seed and ease of shattering. 

An ideal variety for forage should be erect; tall, so that 
the pods are not too near the ground ; slender, but without 
tendency to lodge, so as to permit easy mowing ; leafy 
and with the ability to retain the leaves late ; yellow- 
seeded, as hogs will find such seeds as are shattered more 
readily; non-shattering, a character more common in 
small-seeded than in larger-seeded varieties ; disease 



SOYBEANS 519 

resistant, especially to nematodes and cowpea wilt, which 
seriously affect most varieties of the soybean. 

For seed-production alone, percentage of oil content 
is second in importance to yield, and leafiness and ability 
to hold leaves of practically no concern. 

633. Commercial varieties. — At the present time about 
fifteen varieties of soybeans are handled commercially 
by seedsmen, the most important of which are Mammoth, 
Hollybrook, Haberlandt, Medium Yellow, Guelph, Ito 
San, Wilson and Peking. 

Mam7noth. — This is a tall late variety, under average 
conditions growing from three to five feet high, and strictly 
bushy in habit. At the present time probably two-thirds 
of the acreage of soybeans of the United States is devoted 
to this variety. On account of its lateness, it will not 
usually mature seed north of the District of Columbia and 
Kentucky. This variety was introduced prior to 1882, 
but there is no record as to its exact source. The seeds 
are yellow, one pound containing about 2100. The pubes- 
cence is gray, and the flowers are white. 

Hollybrook. — The Hollybrook soybean matures 15 to 
20 days earlier than the Mammoth. The plants are very 
compact, the pods being densely crowded. The pubes- 
cence is gray, but both white and red-flowered strains 
occur. The seeds are yellow, very much like Mammoth, 
2100 weighing one pound. The plants seldom grow more 
than three feet high, and the pods cover the stems nearly 
to the ground. The Hollybrook was first introduced 
about 1904. 

Haberlandt. — This variety matures about a week earlier 
than the Hollybrook. It is a more bushy and spreading 
plant, but grows to nearly the same height. It is a 
heavy yielder of seed, and also a good hay variety. The 



620 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

pubescence is tawny, and both purple-flowered and white- 
flowered strains occur. The seeds are straw yeflow with 
a brown hilum, one pound containing about 2400. The 
Haberlandt variety was introduced from Pingyang, 
Korea, in 1901. 

Medium Yellow. — This is an erect, bushy, heavy seed- 
ing variety growing 2^ to 3 feet high, and requiring about 
the same length of season as the Haberlandt. The pubes- 
cence is tawny, and the flowers either purple or white. 
The seeds are straw yellow with a pale hilum, one pound 
containing about 3500. This variety was introduced 
from central China in 1901. Some seedsmen advertise 
it under the name of Mongol. 

Guelph. — This variety was introduced from Japan in 
1889 by W. P. Brooks. It is also known under the 
names of Medium Green and Medium Early Green. 
The plants are stout and bushy, growing 1| to 2 feet high. 
The pubescence is tawny, and the flowers purple. The 
whole seed, including both the coat and the germ, is green 
in color. One pound of seed contains about 2600. This 
variety has been much grown in the Northern States, as it 
requires only about 90 days to become fully mature. 

Ito San. — This variety is also known as Japanese pea, 
Early White and Early Yellow. It was introduced 
from Japan by C. C. Georgeson in 1890, but apparently 
the same or a very similar variety was distributed 
by the United States Patent Oflace in 1853. It is 
a bushy variety growing 2 to 2J feet high, with rather 
slender stems, and on this account, excellent for hay. It 
becomes fully mature in about one hundred days after 
planting. The pubescence is tawny, and the flowers 
purple. The seeds are rather small, straw yellow with a 
pale hilum, but with a brown speck near the micropyle. 



SOYBEANS 521 

by which this variety may be certainly known. One 
pound contains about 3200 seeds. This variety has been 
much grown in the Northern States. 

Wilson. — This variety was introduced from Newch- 
wang, Manchuria, in 1906. It is a tall, slender variety, 
growing 3 to 4 feet high, with a few erect branches, and 
becoming fully mature in about 110 days. On account of 
its tall, slender height, it is readily harvested, and makes 
excellent hay, besides being a heavy seed producer. The 
pubescence is tawny, and the flowers either purple or white. 
The seeds are black, with a yellow germ, one pound con- 
taining about 2400 seeds. 

Peking. — A variety introduced from Peking, China, 
in 1907. This variety is characterized by its dense bushi- 
ness, leafiness and slender stems, growing 2J to 3 feet 
high, and becomes fully mature in about 120 days. The 
pubescence is tawny, the flowers white, the seeds black 
and much flattened, with a yellow germ. One pound con- 
tains about 6300 seeds. This variety is one of the most 
satisfactory of all, both for hay and seed production. It 
is rather remarkable among soybean varieties as being 
almost completely non-shattering. 

634. Preparation of soil and cultivation. — The seed 
bed for soybeans should receive as thorough preparation 
as land for corn. This preparation should consist of deep 
plowing and subsequent working with disk and harrow 
until a firm seed bed, with the upper 2 or 3 inches loose 
and mellow, is secured. 

Soybeans germinate in a very few days under proper 
soil conditions, and cultivation is begun as soon as the 
seedling plants appear. The cultivation should be shallow, 
and any good cultivator may be used. Soybeans require 
about the same number of cultivations as corn. Level 



622 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



cultivation is preferable, as the harvesting can be more 
easily done. 

635. Rate of seeding. — The quantity of seed to be 
sown to the acre will vary somewhat according to the size 
of the seed and the use of the crop. With rows from 24 to 
36 inches apart, from 20 to 30 pounds of seed to the acre is 
satisfactory. When sown broadcast for hay, from one to 
one and a half bushels of seed is required. Few rate of 
seeding experiments have been reported, but the following 
results were secured at the Ohio Agricultural Experiment 
Station : — 

Table showing Acre Yields of Soybean Hay and Seeds 

WHEN planted AT DIFFERENT RaTES 



Rate of 


Width op 
Rows 


Yield to the Acre 


Seeding 

TO THE 


Hay 


Thrashed Grain 


Acre 


1909 


1910 


1911 


1909 


1910 


1911 


Pounds 


Inches 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Bushels 


Bushels 


Bushels 


15 


28 


2480 


2685 


4510 


10.66 


18.91 


35.58 


30 


28 


3640 


2775 


4216 


16.58 


20.08 


33.78 


45 


28 


3760 


3010 


5040 


17.33 


21.00 


38.40 


60 


28 


3640 


3345 


4608 


16.08 


23.16 


36.35 


120 


8 


3080 


4300 


5393 


12.66 


15.42 


33.86 



636. Time of seeding. — Soybeans may be sown at 
any time after danger of severe frosts is over. The 
plants, however, grow slowly in cool weather and ordi- 
narily there is no advantage in planting them earlier than 
corn, especially late varieties. In the cotton region, two 
crops of the early and medium varieties can be grown in 
a single season by planting the first early. With the 
very earliest varieties this can also be accompHshed as far 



SOYBEANS 523 

north as Maryland. Generally speaking, June 1 is about 
the best date for seeding. 

637. Method of seeding. — The method of planting 
will depend on the purpose for which the soybeans are 
grown. Soybeans are grown either in cultivated rows or 
broadcasted. The former method is preferable in weedy 
land and usually gives larger yields of hay and practically 
always of seed. The general practice for seed-production 
is the row method, while for hay or soiling, drilling or 
broadcasting furnishes a forage of finer texture. 

In Manchuria soybeans are usually planted in rows 
17 inches wide, the plants about 2 inches apart in the row. 
With rows so close together, hand hoeing is necessary. 
In the United States the rows are most often 36 inches wide, 
so as to facilitate easy cultivation. This distance is not 
too much for large varieties like the Mammoth. In the 
low, poorly drained lands of eastern North Carolina, the 
rows are planted four feet apart and on raised beds, to 
facilitate drainage. For the smaller, earlier varieties, 
rows 18 inches apart give sufficient room for the plants 
to develop fully. The plants of different varieties range in 
height from one foot or less to five feet or more, so the 
optimum distance apart of rows is thus partly a matter 
of variety and partly one of the culture implement to be, 
employed. For the larger varieties, three-foot rows are 
very satisfactory with plants 2 to 3 inches apart in the 
rows. 

Soybeans may be drilled with an ordinary wheat drill, 
the width of the rows adjusted by covering the feed cups 
not in use. Corn planters are sometimes used in planting 
soybeans, as most of the modern planters have special 
plates for drilling beans. 

638. Depth of planting. — The depth of planting soy- 



524 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



bean seed is very important, poor stands frequently re- 
sulting from too deep covering. The depth should not 
exceed two inches, since with shallow planting chance of 
failure due to formation of a soil crust is lessened. In a 
test under favorable conditions with the Mammoth and 
Peking varieties, 100 seeds each were planted respectively 
1, IJ, 2, 2|, 3 and 4 inches deep. The percentages of plants 
reaching the surface one week after planting are shown in 
the table : — 

Germination of Soybeans at Different Depths of Planting 





Per Cent Germination at Different Depths 


Variety 


1 
Inch 


Inches 


2 
Inches 


2h 

Inches 


3 
Inches 


4 

Inches 


Mammoth 
Peking . . . 


100 
95 


93 

97 


98 
92 


95 
92 


92 
90 


84 
86 



At the Tennessee Experiment Station, it was found that 
seed of the Ito San variety failed to reach the surface when 
planted 6 inches deep. At 5 inches the stand was very 
poor, but it was apparently perfect at any depth of plant- 
ing between 1 and 4 inches. 

639. Inoculation. — Natural inoculation now occurs 
quite generally throughout much of the soybean region 
in southern United States. In localities, however, where 
this crop has not been previously grown it is advisable 
to inoculate. 

The inoculation of the soybean by means of artificial 
cultures has been found to be unusually difficult, the rea- 
sons for which are obscure. In soil supplied with nitro- 
gen, the plants grow fairly well without nodules, and 
according to Kirchner nodules were not detected on Euro- 



SOYBEANS 



625 



pean grown plants dur- 
ing the twenty years 
after the crop had been 
introduced. 

Smith and Robinson 
at the Michigan Agri- 
cultural Experiment 
Station made observa- 
tions on the influence 
of nodules on the roots 
upon the composition 
of the soybean. The 
conclusion of two years' 
work was that the nod- 
ules on the roots, in a 
fairly fertile soil, may 
not notably increase the 
yield, but do increase 
the relative and absolute 
amounts of nitrogen in the plants. In the following table 
is given the composition of the dry matter of leaves, stems 
and roots of inoculated and not inoculated soybeans : — 




Fig. 61. 



Roots of soybean, 
nodules. 



showing 





Dry 


Pro- 


Ash 


Nitro- 


Phosphoric 


Pot- 




Matter 


tein 


gen 


Acid 


ash 




Grains 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


Inoculated : — 














Leaves , 


205.98 


22.71 


11.26 


3.63 


.72 


2.27 


Stems 


284.37 


11.54 


7.02 


1.85 


.60 


2.21 


Roots . . . 


55.2 


5.72 


7.14 


.91 


.40 


1.29 


Not inoculated : — 














Leaves . 


198.92 


17.89 


13.86 


2.86 


.65 


2.29 


Stems 


247.48 


8.35 


7.36 


1.33 


.68 


2.07 


Roots . . . 


49.00 


6.60 


12.08 


1.05 


.39 


1.27 



526 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

640. Life period. — The length of time required by the 
soybean plant from germination to maturity varies 
greatly with the variety and with the time of planting. 
Early plantings require a much longer time to mature than 
late plantings, but the same varieties do not behave 
consistently in this respect. With a single variety, Haber- 
landt found that the life period at Vienna, Austria, varied 
from 182 days when planted March 31 to 139 days if 
planted June 9, there being almost a perfectly regular 
gradation for intermediate planting. 

Extensive experiments of this kind have been conducted 
by Mooers at the Tennessee Experiment Station. Some 
of his results are shown in the table : — 

Table showing Relations between Date of Planting and 
Life Period in Soybean 





1907 


1908 


Variety 


Date 
Planted 


Date 
Harvested 


Life 
Period 
Days 


Date 
Planted 


Date 

Harvested 


Life 
Period 
Days 


Mammoth 
Ito San 


Apr. 3 
Apr. 15 
Apr. 30 
May 15 
June 5 
June 17 
June 29 
July 15 
Apr. 3 
Apr. 15 
Apr. 30 
May 15 
June 5 
June 17 
June 29 
July 15 
Aug. 6 


Oct. 5 
Oct. 5 
Oct. 6 
Oct. 9 
Oct. 12 
Oct. 22 
Oct. 22 
Oct. 28 
Aug. 9 
Aug. 9 
Aug. 9 
Aug. 17 
Sept. 3 
Sept. 18 
Sept. 18 
Oct. 9 
Oct. 29 


186 

173 

160 

146 

129 

127 

113 

105 

114 

106 

96 

92 

87 

85 

80 

82 

85 


Apr. 2 
Apr. 14 
May 1 
May 15 
June 1 
June 17 
July 1 
July 17 
Apr. 2 
Apr. 14 
May 1 
May 14 
June 1 
June 17 • 
July 1 
July 16 
Aug. 1 


Oct. 7 
Oct. 7 
Oct. 7 
Oct. 7 
Oct. 7 
Oct. 21 
Oct. 21 
Oct. 24 
July 25 
July 29 
Aug. 5 
Aug. 15 
Aug. 27 
Sept. 10 
Sept. 19 
Oct. 6 
Oct. 24 


188 

179 

159 

145 

128 

126 

112 

100 

114 

106 

96 

92 

87 

85 

80 

82 

85 



SOYBEANS 527 

Ordinarily it is not advisable to sow soybeans until 
about the time for planting corn, as soybean plants grow 
but slowly during cool weather. Of 330 varieties grown 
at Arlington Farm, Virginia, 2 were classified as very 
early, maturing in 80 to 90 days ; 12 as early, maturing 
in 90 to 100 days ; 40 as medium early, maturing in 100 
to 110 days ; 76 as medium, maturing in 110 to 120 days ; 
85 as medium late, maturing in 120 to 130 days ; 55 as 
late, maturing in 130 to 150 days, and 60 as very late, 
requiring more than 150 days. 

On account of self-pollination, soybean varieties show 
but little variability. Of such important varieties as the 
Mammoth, Ito San and Guelph, which have been grown 
in the United States for many years, seed from different 
sources planted at the same place gave results which 
show that no change in the life period has taken place, 
whether the seed was grown in the North or in the South. 
In a few varieties, however, there is satisfactory evidence 
to show that the life period of a variety changes, becoming 
gradually shorter when grown northward, and gradually 
longer when grown southward. 

641. Time to cut for hay. — Soybeans may be cut for 
hay at any time from the setting of the seed until the 
leaves begin to turn yellow. The crop is best fitted for 
hay when the pods are well formed. If allowed to stand 
much longer than this the stems rapidly become woody 
and the percentage of protein lower ; and if left too long, 
there is much loss in leaves. In the development of the 
plant from bloom to maturity there is a marked increase 
in the percentage of fat, little change in that of carbohy- 
drates, but a decided diminution in the percentage of 
protein. The following table shows the variation in the 
composition of soybean hay of the Mammoth variety at 
different stages of development : — 



528 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



Table showing Chemical Analyses of Mammoth Soybean 
Hay cut at Four Different Stages 



Stage when 
Cut 



Full bloom . 
First pods 
Seed I g:rown 
Seed full grown 



Watek 


Protein 


Fat 


Nitrogen 

Free 
Extract 


Fiber 


5.11 


19.22 


1.45 


38.56 


26.50 


5.35 


12.72 


1.06 


42.50 


30.82 


5.40 


10.31 


2.34 


44.73 


30.45 


5.30 


15.94 


7.83 


38.76 


25.97 



Ash 



9.16 
7.55 

6.77 
6.20 



642. Hay yields. — Yields of soybean hay range from 1 
to 3 tons and occasionally 4 tons to the acre. The average 
yield is about 2 tons to the acre : — 

Table showing Yields of Soybean Hay at Various Ameri- 
can Experiment Stations, in Pounds to the Acre 



Variety 


Delaware 


Tennessee 


Ohio 


Kansas 


Virginia 


Mammoth 




5660 






5700 


Hollybrook 


4500 


5220 






5900 


Guelph . 


4350 


4560 


1717 




3260 


Ito San . 


3200 


4340 


1725 


4739 


5120 


Haberlandt 


5800 


5400 




2431 




Med. Yellow . 


4500 


4560 


1840 


3595 


4600 


Wilson . . . 


5200 










Peking . . . 


4830 










Ebony . . . 


3800 




1860 






Cloud . . . 


6100 




2170 







643. Fertilizers. — On land of moderate fertility, com- 
mercial fertilizers do not seem to show marked results in 
the yield of soybeans. On sandy soil or soils in poor con- 
dition, experiments show that a dressing of stable manure 
or of acid phosphate and potash gives the best results^ 



SOYBEANS 529 

At the Delaware Experiment Station, an application of 250 
to 350 pounds to the acre of a mixture of 400 pounds of acid 
phosphate and 100 pounds of muriate of potash is recom- 
mended. Good results were obtained at the Tennessee 
Agricultural Experiment Station by using acid phosphate 
alone at the rate of 200 to 300 pounds to the acre. In using 
commercial fertilizer, it is well to apply broadcast before 
the soybeans are planted. 

Lime as shown especially by Mooers' experiments in 
Tennessee almost invariably gives pronouncedly larger 
yields. 

644. Soybean mixtures. — Soybeans are well adapted 
to planting in mixture with other farm crops. Results of 
experiments along this line indicate that a larger yield of 
hay can be secured and also a greater variety of forage. 
The chief advantage, perhaps, is in the varied ration. 

Soybeans and corn. — Soybeans are more generally 
grown with corn than with any other crop. They may be 
planted in the same hills with corn, in alternate hills with 
the corn in the same row, in alternate rows of each or two 
rows of each. Rarely they are broadcasted in mixture. 
When soybeans are grown with corn by these methods, the 
crop may be fed on the land to hogs or harvested for si- 
lage. The early and medium varieties of soybeans may 
be planted in between the corn rows at the time of the 
last cultivation. 

Soybeans and cowpeas. — A mixture of soybeans and 
cowpeas is more easily harvested and cured than cow- 
peas alone. In such mixtures, tall strong-growing varie- 
ties of soybeans are best as they tend to support the 
vining cowpeas. Care should be taken to select varieties 
of soybeans and cowpeas that mature about the same 
time. In sowing such a mixture, it is better to use a larger 

2 m 



630 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

proportion of soybeans. One bushel of soybeans to one- 
half bushel of cowpeas gives excellent results if broad- 
casted, but half this quantity is sufficient if planted in 
three-foot rows. The time for cutting for hay is deter- 
mined primarily by the soybeans, as cowpeas can be cut 
for hay over a much longer period than the soybeans. 

Soybeans and sorghums. — Soybeans may be grown 
very satisfactorily for hay or silage in a mixture with 
sorghum. The tall-growing vining varieties are best, 
and either Amber or Orange sorghum may be used. This 
mixture is most satisfactory in cultivated rows, as the 
sorghum is apt to choke out the soybeans when broad- 
casted, unless the sorghum is planted thinly. 

Soybeans and Johnson-grass. — Johnson-grass as well as 
Sudan-grass is excellent for growing in mixtures with 
soybeans. Not only are better yields obtained with these 
mixtures but also the quality of the hay is improved. 
Twining varieties of soybeans have a distinct advantage 
for growing with these grasses. 

Soybeans and millet. — Soybeans and millet are not 
to be recommended as a mixture. The millet matures 
too early for any of the good hay varieties of soybeans. 

645. Silage. — Soybeans may be very satisfactorily 
used for silage, the best results being obtained when 
mixed with corn or sorghum. The soybeans may be 
grown either in combination with the corn or the sorghum, 
but it seems preferable to grow them separately and to 
mix them while cutting for the silo. 

646. Rotations. — In the South soybeans are adapted 
to practically the same place in rotations as are cowpeas. 
In Tennessee and North Carolina, a soybean crop is often 
grown between two wheat crops, and in other parts of 
the South, between two oat crops. In such cases medium 



SOYBEANS 531 

early varieties are preferable. Where a whole season can 
be devoted to soybeans in the South, two crops of early 
varieties can be grown in place of one crop of a late variety. 
Especially where seed-production is the object, much larger 
yields can be obtained by this practice. In the North, 
soybeans generally occupy the same place in rotation as 
oats, the principal objection being that the harvesting of 
the soybeans presses very closely on the seeding time for 
wheat. 

647. Feeding value of soybean hay. — At the Tennessee 
Experiment Station, dairy cows were fed soybean hay in 
comparison with alfalfa hay, and soybean straw in compari- 
son with corn stover. Judging by the amount of milk 
and butter fat obtained, the data show a slight superiority 
of soybean hay alone over alfalfa hay alone. The 
soybean straw alone produced 12 per cent more milk 
and 14 per cent more butter fat than the corn stover 
alone. 

648. Seed-production. — The character of growth, the 
uniform maturing habit of the soybean and the large 
yield of grain recommend the plant for seed-production. 
Tall varieties that do not branch nor bear pods close to 
the ground are most desirable, as they are more easily 
harvested. 

When grown for grain alone, soybeans should be allowed 
to develop fully. This stage of maturity is indicated in 
the case of most varieties when all of the leaves have 
fallen. The Guelph and a few varieties not on the market 
retain the leaves late and much seed would be lost by 
shattering if the harvesting were not done earlier. Soy- 
beans may be also harvested for grain when the leaves first 
begin to fall. If cut at this stage practically as much 
seed is saved as when the plants are allowed to mature, 



532 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

and the straw obtained is a much better feed. The plants 
should be allowed to become thoroughly dry after cutting. 
When ready to bunch and put into shocks, soybeans 
should be a little damp, as some shattering will occur if 
handled when very dry. 

One of the chief difficulties in growing soybeans for 
seed has been the harvesting. The small early varieties 
can be harvested only with a mowing machine, or a bean 
harvester or by hand. For harvesting many of the later 
and more erect growing varieties, a mower with a bunch- 
ing attachment or a self-rake reaper is better adapted. 
The self-binder has been found the most satisfactory 
machine to use with tall varieties. 

Thrashing is most satisfactorily done in the field with- 
out previously stacking if conditions will permit. Soy- 
beans may be thrashed with an ordinary grain separator 
if necessary adjustments are made, otherwise a large per 
cent of the beans will be cracked or spht. The cylinder 
should be run at about one-half the speed used in thrash- 
ing grain, but at the same time maintaining the usual 
rate for the rest of the machine. Some of the concaves 
should be removed or a special set of thin concaves should 
be used. The ordinary wheat separators are now manu- 
factured provided with a pea and bean hulling attachment 
which is said to do satisfactory work. Special pea and 
bean separators are now on the market which not only 
do clean hulling, but split none of the beans. Soybeans 
cannot be satisfactorily thrashed unless thoroughly dry, 
for when slightly damp the pods are tough, and much of 
the seed remains unthrashed. 

Special care is required in storing soybean seed to 
prevent heating, which will ruin the beans as far as germi- 
nation is concerned. The seed should be thoroughly 



SOYBEANS 533 

dry when placed in storage or else placed where good 
ventilation is afforded and the seed not bulked together 
in large quantities. Under whatever conditions the seed 
may be stored, it should be examined occasionally to detect 
any tendency to heat. If signs of heating are found, the 
seed should be removed at once and spread out until per- 
fectly dry. 

649. Pollination. — The soybean flower is completely 
self-fertile, bagged plants setting pods as perfectly as those 
exposed. The flowers are much visited by bees, which 
seek principally the pollen, as the soybean flower secretes 
but little nectar. Pollination occurs even before the flower 
opens, but nevertheless occasional cross-pollinations occur 
where different varieties are grown in close proximity. 
Such natural hybrids can often be detected by the fact 
that the seeds of heterozygote plants present queer combi- 
nations of color, such as smoky green, smoky yellow, 
brown, and yellow and black banded. In the course of 
varietal trials at Arlington Farm, Virginia, extending over 
five years, many such natural hybrids were secured, and 
similar crosses occurred at the Kansas Experiment 
Station. 

650. Seed yield. — With regard to the seed yield of the 
soybean, there is considerable variation in the figures 
given. When grown alone for seed, the best varieties 
under proper culture yield from 30 to 40 bushels of seed 
to the acre. A maximum yield of 50 bushels to the acre 
has been reported from North Carolina. According to 
various authorities, the yields in Manchuria range from 
about 1000 pounds to the acre on very poor soil up to about 
1800 pounds to the acre on good soil. 

In the United States, yields have been reported by 
various investigators as follows : — 



534 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



Table showing Acre Yield in Bushels of Soybean Seed 
AT Various Experiment Stations 



Variety 


J, 
> 


H 
C5 

« 
< 


CO 
CD 

H 


o 


w 
Q 


< 
< 
o 
1— 1 


o 

K 

o 


cc 

« 
< 


s 

3 
> 


o 
< 

H 

o 

a 

CM 

J 
O 


Mammoth .... 


18.0 


23.9 










15.26 






HoUybrook 








23.0 


22.9 


16.2 


29.2 




12.8 


11.4 






Guelph 








IS. 7 


16.5 




15.2 




22.38 




16.16 




Ito San 








13.3 


20.2 


8.0 


21.9 




24.7 




18.43 




Haberlandt 








23.0 


25.7 


14.0 


23.3 








18.33 




Med. Yellow 








23.2 


25.9 




26.9 


18.1 








17.2 


Wilson 








18.2 




10.2 


32.2 


20.1 










Peking . . 








23.4 






32.7 








15.00 




Ebony . . 








15.7 


25.0 


10.0 


25.2 












Chernie 
























23.5 



651. Seeds. — Soybean seeds weigh about 60 pounds 
to the bushel and this weight is recognized as standard 
in most states. The size of the seeds varies greatly, 
as shown in the following table : — 

Table showing Number of Soybean Seeds to the Pound 
AND TO the Bushel in Ten Varieties 



Variety 


Number of Seeds 


Variety 


Number of Seeds 


One 
pound 


One 
bushel 


One 
pound 


One 
bushel 


Mammoth 
HoUybrook 
Haberlandt 
Wilson . . . 

Guelph . 


2144 
2144 
2400 
2400 

2624 


128640 
128640 
144000 
144000 

157440 


Ito San . . 
Ebony 
Med. Yellow 
Wisconsin 

black 
Peking . . 


3232 
3240 
3552 

5104 

6388 


193920 
194400 
213120 

306240 
383280 



SOYBEANS 



535 



The seeds do not retain their viability well, and it is not 
advisable to sow seed two years old without previously 
testing. Unless care is exercised in properly curing and 
storing, soybean seeds are apt to heat and thus quickly 
have their viability destroyed. A small percentage of the 
seed will under favorable conditions retain its viability 
four or five years, and this has been found to vary accord- 
ing to variety, as shown in the table : — 

Viability of Soybean Seeds 



Variety 



Shanghai 
Chernie 
Baird . 
Fairehild 
Jet . . 
Ebony . 
Tashing 
Guelph 
Brownie 
Ito San 
Haberlandt 
Mammoth 



Seed Color 



Black 

Black 

Brown 

Black 

Black 

Black 

Green 

Green 

Brown 

Straw Yellow 

Straw Yellow 

Straw Yellow 



1 Year 


2 Year 


Old 


Old 


Per cent 


Per cent 


99.0 


93.0 


94.0 


76.5 


97.0 


88.0 


95.5 


84.5 


92.5 


60.0 


94.0 


71.5 


90.5 


81.5 


97.5 


86.5 


90.5 


67.0 


100.0 


83.0 


76.0 


2.5 


77.0 


32.5 



4 Year 
Old 



Per cent 

43.5 

46.5 

24.5 

20.0 

19.5 

4.0 

3.0 

1.5 

1.5 

2.5 

0.0 

0.5 



Weevils rarely injure soybean seeds, but under excep- 
tional circumstances have been known to destroy them. 
This relative immunity to weevil injury is important, 
especially in the South. 

652. Pests. — Soybeans are troubled by few serious 
enemies. On the whole, rabbits are most troublesome, 
as they are extravagantly fond of the herbage, and where 
they are abundant soybean culture is practically impos- 



536 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

sible. At the Tennessee Experimental Substation at 
Jackson, rabbit injury was much reduced by using 
scarecrows, to each of which a lantern was hung at 
night. 

Rootknot caused by a nematode ( Heterodera radicicola) 
often injures soybeans considerably, but more damage is 
caused by cowpea wilt, due to a Fusarium. 

Caterpillars sometimes eat the leaves, but the loss 
from such insects is seldom serious. 

On the whole it may be said that no insect or fungus 
pest has yet assumed any great economic importance in 
connection with the culture of the soybean. 

653. Breeding. — The soybean lends itself readily to 
improvement, and considerable work in breeding is being 
carried on by the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, the Tennessee Experiment Station and the Ohio Ex- 
periment Station. The Ohio Station is testing individual 
plants in duplicate plant-row work in much the same way 
that it is testing ears of corn and is finding decided differ- 
ences in yield of seed and forage, in tendency to shatter 
and in habits of growth. The Tennessee Station is con- 
ducting selection work with a number of varieties and has 
found considerable variation in maturity, habit of growth 
and plant characters within the same varieties, so that 
several strains of the same variety are under test. The 
United States Department of Agriculture has done a very 
considerable amount of work toward the improvement 
of the soybean by selection and hybridization. The 
results of the breeding work thus far indicate that 
it is easily possible to improve the varieties now on the 
market. 

654. Soybeans and cowpeas compared. — Inasmuch 
as soybeans are adapted to so nearly the same uses and 



SOYBEANS 537 

same place in farm rotation as the cowpea, an agronomic 
comparison of the two crops has often been made. 

The soybean is determinate in growth ; that is, it reaches 
a definite size and matures. Nearly all varieties of cow- 
peas, on the other hand, are indeterminate, continuing 
growth until killed by frost. With the exception of a 
few varieties, the soybean does not vine, but grows erect or 
nearly erect. Cowpeas, on the other hand, are viny plants, 
and therefore more difficult to harvest. Soybeans mature 
all their pods at one time. Cowpeas continue to produce 
green pods as long as the plant lives. 

Soybeans will withstand rather heavy frosts, both in 
the spring, when young, and in the fall, when nearly 
mature, while the same frosts are fatal to cowpeas. They 
are more drought resistant than cowpeas, and in a dry 
season will give much greater yields ; they will also with- 
stand excessive moisture much better. 

For green manuring or soil improving, the cowpea is 
far more valuable than the soybean, as it will smother 
weeds much more successfully. 

The value of the hay of the two plants is nearly the 
same. There is frequently doubt as to which is the more 
desirable to grow. On relatively poor soil or when broad- 
casted, cowpeas are always preferable. When cultivated, 
the soybean will yield the greater return, and if cut late, 
the hay is more easily cured. 

For growing with corn or sorghum for hay or silage the 
cowpea is generally preferable to the soybean. 

The feeding value of an acre of soybeans for beef cattle 
was found by the Tennessee Agricultural Experiment 
Station to be about 50 per cent greater than that of cow- 
peas grown on an adjoining acre. This was also approxi- 
mately the difference in yield of the two crops. 



538 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

As a grain producer the soybean is in every way prefer- 
able to the cowpea, as it produces larger yields of richer 
grain and can be harvested much more easily. 

The soybean, therefore, is to be recommended above 
the cowpea where intensive rather than extensive farming 
is practicable and desirable. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 

There are numerous tropical and subtropical legumes 
well adapted to culture in the Southern States. None of 
these are of equal importance to the cowpea and the soy- 
bean, but several of them have high value for particular 
conditions. Among these are Japan clover, velvet-bean 
and beggar-weed. Others such as bonavist, guar, mung 
and related beans can hardly compete with the cowpea, 
although there is need of much further experimentation 
with these crops before their value can be clearly 
determined. 

LESPEDEZA OR JAPAN CLOVER {Lespeckza stHato) 

655. Description. — Lespedeza or Japan clover is a 
native of eastern Asia, occurring in Japan, Korea, Man- 
churia, Mongolia and China. It is a summer annual with 
reddish, usually much-branched, wiry stems and numerous 
small, sessile, trifoHolate leaves. Over most of the area in 
which it occurs the plants are only 4 to 6 inches high, and 
isolated plants often make masses 6 to 12 inches across. 
Under very favorable conditions of soil and climate, the 
plants commonly grow 12 inches high, frequently reach- 
ing 18 inches and exceptionally 24 to 30 inches. In thin 
stands the plants are spreading, or even prostrate, but 
where dense are quite erect and not much branched. 

The plants begin to appear rather late in spring, bloom 

539 



540 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

in late summer and mature their seeds in September and 
October. The small flowers are purple. Dodson found 
that a plant in good condition had 45.4 per cent of its 
weight in stems and the remainder in leaves and buds. 
As the plants get old, the lower leaves are shed more or 
less and the percentage of stem weight becomes higher. 
The roots are not deep, but Dodson estimated that the dry 
weight of the stubble and roots to 12 inches in depth is 
about one-third that of the hay removed. McCarthy at 
the North Carolina Experiment Station described a broad- 
leaved variety which showed " immense superiority " 
over the common sort. 

656. Agricultural history. — Lespedeza was first found 
in the United States at Monticello, Georgia, by Thomas 
C. Porter in 1846, his specimens being still preserved. 
The plant seems to have already become common 
by the close of the Civil War, and perhaps was much 
spread by the movements of the cavalry during that 
conflict, as the seeds are not digested by horses. At the 
present time it occurs spontaneously in most of the area 
from central New Jersey west to central Kansas and south 
to the Gulf. Throughout all of this region it furnishes a 
portion of the summer pasturage, thriving even on the 
poorest soils. In the lower Mississippi valley, especially 
in Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas, it grows tall 
enough to cut for hay, and to a less extent this is the 
case in other southern states on rich lands. 

There are no definite records as to when Lespedeza 
was first cut for hay, but about 1880 its culture was taken 
up and later strongly advocated by J. B. McGehee 
in Louisiana. Its status as a cultivated crop may be said 
to date from this time. Apparently it has never been 
cultivated in its native country. 



OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 541 

657. Adaptations. — Lespedeza has spread naturally 
since its introduction into the United States over practi- 
cally the whole area from southern New Jersey westward 
nearly to central Kansas and south to the Gulf of Mexico. 
It is only in the lower Mississippi valley that it grows 
large enough to cut for hay, elsewhere being valuable 
only for pasturage. It shows no marked preference for 
soils, occurring on every type, if well drained near the 
surface. 

Lespedeza delights in heat and does not begin to grow 
in spring until warm weather. It does not withstand 
frost, but it rarely begins growth until all danger of frost 
is over. Its northern limit seems determined wholly b}^ 
the length of the hot season necessary for it to mature 
seed. 

658. Culture. — Lespedeza is best seeded in early spring, 
preferably February in Louisiana and Mississippi, but it 
may be sown up till April. From 15 to 25 pounds of seed 
is used to the acre. Where once land has grown Japan 
clover, it is rarely necessary to reseed it again if proper 
precautions be used. The seed, however, is quite cheap, 
and Lespedeza is being grown more and more in regular 
rotations. 

It is most commonly sown perhaps with oats as a nurse- 
crop, sowing the Lespedeza with the oats in fall or better 
in early spring on the fall-sown oats. After the oats are 
harvested, a good crop of Lespedeza can be harvested the 
same season. It may thus occupy the land for two or 
more years, reseeding itself each year, or better, be suc- 
ceeded by corn or cotton in a regular rotation. 

The reseeding of the land to Lespedeza may be regu- 
lated in harvesting the crop. If cut when in bloom, the 
aftermath will ripen seed before frost, or strips of the 



542 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Lespedeza may be left between each swath for re- 
seeding. 

If harvested for seed, enough will shatter to produce a 
good stand the next year. 

Lespedeza is nearly always a spontaneous constituent 
of Bermuda-grass pastures, but if not present, should be 
sown. Redtop is another grass that makes a good mixture 
with it, the first crop being mainly redtop and the second 
Lespedeza. 

659. Pasturage value. — Lespedeza is remarkable for 
its ability to grow in the very poorest of sandy or gravelly 
soils, but it makes far greater growth on rich calcareous 
loams or clay loams. If not too closely grazed, it maintains 
itself indefinitely where once established. It is a common 
element of the pastures throughout the area where it 
occurs except on wet lands. On poor thin soils it often 
occurs in dense pure growths. It endures shade fairly 
well, occurring abundantly in moderately open woodlands. 
In no sense can it be called a weed, as it is quickly de- 
stroyed by cultivation. The herbage is readily grazed by 
all farm animals, and will withstand very heavy pasturing. 
Like other clovers it sometimes causes mules and horses 
to " slobber," but it has never been known to cause bloat- 
ing. Late spring frosts sometimes destroy it. Under 
close mowing, as on golf courses, it disappears after a few 
years because no seed is formed. 

In the lower Mississippi valley, where it succeeds best, 
Lespedeza may be grazed until June and still make a hay 
crop, or cut in August and the aftermath used for pasture. 

660. Hay. — Only in the lower Mississippi valley, where 
Lespedeza grows tall, is it much cut for hay. It is com- 
monly harvested with an ordinary mowing machine, but 
is seldom cut for hay if less than 8 inches tall. The plants 



OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 543 

contain but little water, so the hay cures more readily 
than any other cultivated legume and nearly as easily 
as timothy. 

Owing to the dense stands of Lespedeza and the solid 
stems, it weighs very heavy. If the stand is dense, a 
height of 8 or 9 inches will yield about 1 ton of hay to the 
acre ; if 12 to 14 inches, approximately 2 tons ; and when 
24 to 30 inches high, 4 tons to the acre. 

Probably the best time to cut Lespedeza for hay is when 
it is in full bloom, but as the weather conditions in the 
fall are usually better, it is mostly cut in October. 

Dodson at the Louisiana Experiment Station compared 
Lespedeza hay protected from rain with that which had 
been subjected to various weather conditions, in two cases 
being rained upon twice. So far as chemical analyses 
show, practically no loss resulted, but rains do injure the 
appearance of the hay as well as its palatability. 

661. Seed-production. — Seed of Lespedeza is mainly 
harvested in Louisiana. It is conveniently cut with a 
mowing machine having a bunching attachment. The cut- 
ting should take place when the seeds are ripe or nearly 
ripe, but the plants still green. Care is necessary in han- 
dling to avoid undue shattering, and the straw must be 
thoroughly dry before it is thrashed. 

The seed crop produced by the dwarfer plants on poorer 
lands is often as large as that produced on better soils. 
Such a seed crop is best harvested by means of an iron pan 
attached behind the cutter bar of the mower, the top of 
the pan being covered by wires or a perforated sheet of 
galvanized iron to keep out trash. Sometimes such a 
pan is used in cutting tall Lespedeza, and in this way 
the best and ripest seed which otherwise would be lost is 
secured. 



544 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

The yield of seed to the acre ranges from 5 to 12 bushels, 
and one bushel of clean, unhulled seed weighs about 25 
pounds. One pound contains about 370,000 seeds. 

FLORIDA VELVET BEAN (Stizolohium deeriugianum) 

662. Description and history. — The Florida velvet 
bean is a vigorous-growing bean-like vine, introduced 
into Florida previous to 1875. It is an annual, with 
much-branched twining stems, which under favorable 
conditions may attain a length of from 30 to 50 feet, 
usually growing to about half this length. The leaves 
are trifoliolate with large, membranaceous leaflets shorter 
than the petiole. The leaflets are ovate, the lateral ones 
oblique, and each is attached to a short pubescent stalk. 
The flowers are dark purple in long pendent racemes. 
The matured pods are about two inches long, turgid, some- 
what constricted between the seeds, and covered with a 
soft, nearly black velvety pubescence. Each pod con- 
tains three to five, marbled brown and gray seeds. 

The velvet bean will rarely mature its pods as far 
north as Washington, D.C. As the pods constitute the 
most valuable part of the plant, it is of importance only 
where these will become mature, which area includes 
Florida and the southern portions of Georgia, Alabama, 
Mississippi and Louisiana. 

663. Utilization. — On account of the long vines and 
the tangled mass of herbage which it produces, the velvet 
bean is not a satisfactory hay plant, as it can be cut and 
cured only with great difficulty. On this account, it is 
utilized mainly as a pasturage, the stock being 'turned 
into the field in the fall after the pods have matured, 
as cattle will eat not only the pods but also the dry 
leaves which have fallen to the ground. It is fed mainly 



OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 545 

to cattle, but hogs also thrive upon it. Owing to the 
very viny nature of the plants, it is necessary to grow 
it in conjunction with some supporting crop ; other- 
wise but a comparatively few pods are produced. 
Among the supporting crops that can be used are corn, 
pearl millet, and sorghums. Of these, corn is the best, 
especially the strong-growing varieties. Various methods 
of planting are used. When planted alone, the velvet 
bean should be planted after the ground has been thor- 
oughly worked, so as to obtain one plant about every five 
feet each way. This requires about 12 pounds of seed 
to the acre. When planted with corn or other supporting 
crops, various plans are used. The beans may be planted 
in the same row with the corn, but under such conditions 
practically no corn is secured. Another method is to put 
the corn in successive rows and plant the velvet beans in 
the middle. Still another method is to plant two or three 
rows of corn to each row of velvet bean. The maximum 
yields of beans is secured where the plants are supported 
on poles or trellises, but this is not practicable where it is 
designed to pasture the crop. 

664. Other species of Stizolobium. — Recent investiga- 
tions have disclosed the fact that in the countries sur- 
rounding the Indian Ocean, there are numerous species 
of stizolobium closely related to the velvet bean. Most 
of these have been recently introduced and are being 
tested in comparison with the Florida velvet bean. 
Among the most important are the Lyon bean (Stizolobium 
niveum), differing from the Florida velvet bean in having 
white flowers and white seeds, and nearly smooth pods 
which, however, shatter readily when they become mature ; 
the Chinese velvet bean, differing from the Lyon bean 
only in being much earlier, maturing its seeds as far north 
2n 



546 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

as Washington, D.C., and the Yokohama bean {Stizo- 
lohium hassjoo) from Japan, the earUest and least vigorous 
of all the species, readily maturing its seeds as far north as 
Maryland and Kansas. Unfortunately the pods shatter 
quite readily and also rot where they lie in contact with 
the ground. 

The most desirable type of the velvet bean would be 
one that is comparatively early, and relatively bushy in 
type, whose seeds would not shatter, and whose pods would 
not rot when lying in contact with the wet ground. At 
the Florida Experiment Station, hybrids have been made 
between the Florida velvet bean and the Lyon bean, 
which have given rise to numerous forms. From these, 
it seems very probable that much improved varieties 
will be secured, even if the ideal is not reached. Many 
of these hybrids resemble in some of their characteristics 
other species, and it is possible that all the species of culti- 
vated stizolobiums are forms of a single species. 

OTHER CROPS 

665. Peanut {Arachis hypogcea). — The peanut is in 
all probability a native of South America. It is also 
known as ground nut, earth nut, goober, and pindar. 
The plant is cultivated primarily for its seeds for use as 
human food, but the herbage is nearly always saved for 
hay, and sometimes the whole crop is utilized by pasturing 
to hogs. 

The peanut is adapted only to regions with long hot 
summers. In the United States it succeeds best south 
of 36°. The plant does well both on sandy and clay 
soils, but as the young pods must burrow into the ground 
to develop, peanuts are rarely planted except on sandy or 
silty soils. The principal producing states were, in order 



OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 547 

of their acreage in 1909, North Carohna, Georgia, Virginia, 
Florida and Alabama. 

The varieties most cultivated are the following : Vir- 
ginia Bunch, Virginia Runner, Tennessee Red, Valencia, 
and Spanish. All of these have decumbent branches 
except Spanish. 

Peanuts are planted in late spring after the ground is 
thoroughly warmed. They are usually planted in rows 28 
to 36 inches wide and 9 to 16 inches apart in the row, 
depending on the variety. The Spanish variety may be 
planted more closely than others, and on this account, as 
well as its erect habit, is practically the only one used 
where the entire crop is to be used for hay. 

Peanuts are usually harvested by piling the vines in 
tall, narrow cocks about a stake with cross pieces near 
the base. When thoroughly cured, the nuts are removed 
and the straw used as fodder. The yield of fodder 
ranges from about 1500 to 3000 pounds or very rarely 
4000 pounds to the acre. 

If grown for forage, the same method is commonly used, 
but sometimes the tops are cut and cured for hay, and hogs 
then turned in the field to feed on the pods. As a hay 
plant the peanut cannot compete with the cowpea and the 
soybean, but as a crop to be pastured by hogs it has con- 
siderable importance. 

Peanuts are not infrequently used as pasture to fatten 
hogs. From hogs thus fattened the famous Smithfield 
hams are made. Bennett, at the Arkansas Experiment 
Station, pastured pigs on peanuts andonchufas in compari- 
son with penned animals fed corn. The pigs on peanuts 
showed a gain of 104J pounds a pig ; on chufas 66 pounds ; 
and on corn 112J pounds. Duggar, at the Alabama 
Experiment Station, found that one acre of peanuts would 



548 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

give pasturage for 1 month to about 25 pigs weighing 
100 pounds each. In comparison with chufas, rape, 
cowpeas and sorghum, it was estimated that to make one 
pound of gain the pigs required in addition to the pastur- 
age grain as follows: 1.77 pounds when on peanuts; 
2.3 pounds when on chufas ; 3.07 pounds when on cow- 
peas ; 2.68 pounds when on rape ; and 3.7 pounds when on 
sorghum. 

666. Florida beggarweed {Desmodium tortuosum or 
Meibomia tortuosa). — Florida beggarweed is a native of 
the West Indies, but has been known in Florida at least 
since 1833. It is an erect annual with rather woody 
stalks from 3 to 10 feet high, bearing an abundant leafage 
above, and when in flower tipped with much-branched 
erect panicles, the ascending lateral branches being often 
8 to 12 inches long. The seeds are borne in many-jointed 
prickly pods, which break apart at maturity and are 
carried about by sticking to the bodies of animals or the 
clothing of persons. The plant is hairy throughout, and 
has trifoliolate leaves, the obliquely rhomboid leaflets being 
from 2 to 4 inches long. Florida beggarweed is adapted 
only to the warmer parts of the Southern States, being 
grown especially on the sandy lands of the coastal plain 
from North Carolina to Texas. It is useful as a soil reno- 
vator and makes a fine quality of hay that is relished by 
all classes of farm stock. Beggarweed seems never to 
be attacked either by nematodes or root rot. 

For a crop of seed, beggarweed should be sown at the 
rate of 5 or 6 pounds of clean seed to the acre. If grown for 
hay, from 8 to 10 pounds should be used. It should not 
be sown until the ground is warm and moist, and clean 
seed is preferable to the pods because of the more uniform 
germination and better stand which may be obtained. 



OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 549 

If sown at the beginning of the summer rains, the seed 
need not be covered. It must not be covered too deeply, 
else the young plants will not be able to reach the surface. 
By sowing at the beginning of the summer two crops may 
be secured in Florida. 

If cut for hay when the first flowers appear, the stubble 
will send up a second crop, which may be saved for 
seed, and enough seed will scatter to insure a crop next 
season. On very rich ground 4 cuttings in one season 
with a total yield of 4630 pounds to the acre were obtained 
at Charleston, South Carolina. The seed may also be 
scattered in the corn rows at the time of the last cultiva- 
tion or at the beginning of the rains in June. Then, after 
the corn has been stripped or cut for fodder, the beggar- 
weed may be mown for hay or harvested for seed. The 
crop should be cut for hay when it is about 3 or 4 feet 
high, or at the beginning of the blooming period. If cut 
after full bloom, many of the lower leaves will have 
fallen and much of the best part of the crop will be lost. 

Hulled seed is now commercial, being produced wholly 
in Florida. 

667. The jackbean (Canavalia ensiformis). — The jack- 
bean is a bushy, semi-erect annual plant, growing to a 
height of 2 to 4 feet. Its stems are rather coarse and 
become woody toward the base. The rather thickish 
leaves have a decidedly bitter taste. The flowers are 
purple, borne near the base of the stem, so that most of 
the pods hang low. When mature, the pods are hard and 
firm, 9 to 14 inches long, each containing 10 to 14 seeds. 
These are pure white, with a brown hilum. The plant 
will withstand much drought, and is remarkably free from 
insects and fungous diseases, but is affected by root-knot. 

The jackbean is a native of the West Indies and the 



550 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

adjacent mainland. In Jamaica, whence it first became 
well known, it is called the horse bean or the overlook bean. 
In this country it has been designated the Pearson bean, 
and recently the Wonder bean. Owing to confusion with 
the similar species cultivated in Japan, China and India, it 
has also been called the sword bean and the knife bean, 
but those names properly belong to the Asiatic species 
(Canavalia gladiata), used principally as a vegetable. 

In the last 25 years, the jackbean has several times 
attracted attention on account of its vigorous growth 
and large yield of pods and seeds. It was extensively 
tested at the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station 
during the years 1890 to 1895. Under field conditions 
yields of 30 to 40 bushels of beans to the acre were obtained, 
even when grown on thin soil. Attempts were made to 
utilize these beans as feed for both beef and dairy cattle, 
but the beans were found to be both unpalatable and 
indigestible. 

Seeds of the bean were distributed by P. Pearson, of 
Starkville, Mississippi, from which fact it became known 
as the Pearson bean. At the Texas Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station it produced 35 bushels to the acre. At the 
North Carohna Agricultural Experiment Station it pro- 
duced an estimated yield of 40 bushels to the acre. It was 
also tested at the Louisiana Experiment Station. None of 
these stations regarded the bean as promising, but, so far 
as recorded, no attempt was made to utilize either the 
herbage or the seeds as forage. More recently the plant 
has been tested in Hawaii, and favorable reports as to its 
forage value have been published. 

The value of the plant as forage is yet problematical. 
Its successful utilization as green feed in Hawaii encour- 
ages the belief that it may be found equally valuable in 



OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 551 

this country, especially in Texas and Oklahoma, where 
its great drought resistance gives it particular promise. 
There is also the probability that the jackbean may prove 
to be valuable for silage. Its coarse habit and heavy 
tonnage should adapt it well to this purpose. 

The large yield of seed to the acre justifies further experi- 
ments to determine whether any means can be devised to 
utilize the seeds profitably as feed, which the work of the 
Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station indicates is 
a difficult problem. 

668. Mung bean (Phaseolus aureus). — The mung 
bean is native to southern Asia. It is probably a plant 
of very ancient culture, as it is grown by the natives 
throughout the southern half of Asia and the principal 
Malayan Islands as well as on the eastern coast of Africa. 
In these countries the mung bean is grown mainly for the 
seed which is an important article of human food, but in 
India the straw is also prized as forage for live stock. 

The habit of the mung bean is very similar to that of 
the cowpea, but the plants are less viny and some are 
strictly bush. The adaptations of the plant are also 
practically identical with that of the cowpea. The plant 
was introduced into American agriculture as early as 
1835 when it was known as the Chickasaw pea, and some- 
what later it was called the Oregon pea under the erroneous 
idea that it came from that region. Notwithstanding its 
wide testing thus early in the Southern States and much 
testing in recent years with numerous varieties, the mung 
bean has not been able to find a place in American agricul- 
ture in competition with the cowpea. The reasons for 
this are mainly that the pods continue to be formed and 
ripen until frost, and they shatter very readily. In coun- 
tries where labor is cheap and the pods are picked promptly 



552 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

as they ripen, this is not a serious objection to their 
culture. The seeds also are very much attacked by the 
cowpea weevil, perhaps more so than any other legume 
seeds. 

The culture of the mung bean is essentially the same as 
that of the cowpea, but it is preferable to plant in culti- 
vated rows as the young plants do not compete with weeds 
as well as does the cowpea. If cut for hay, this should 
be done as soon as the first pods begin to turn black in 
ripening. 

The varieties are very numerous, differing in size, 
habit, earliness and the shape and color of the seeds. 
These are spherical in most varieties, green, brown or 
marbled. The variety recently known as the Newman 
bean is undoubtedly the same as the old Chickasaw pea, 
and this variety has become spontaneous in portions of 
South Carolina. The Newman bean is very late, strictly 
erect, reaching a height of 3J feet and barely maturing 
seeds at Arlington Farm, Virginia. 

669. Urd {Phaseolus mungo). — The urd is very closely 
related to the mung bean, but it differs in its procumbent 
habit, in its shorter, more hairy pods, and in its oblong 
green or mottled seeds which have a concave hilum. The 
urd is probably native to India, in which country it is 
extensively grown for human food. As a hay crop it is 
inferior to the mung bean on account of its procumbent 
habits which make it difficult to mow. The largest and 
latest varieties, however, make a dense mass of herbage, 
a single plant covering an area 3 feet square and reaching 
a height of 20 to 30 inches. One of these late varieties 
is used as a green-manure crop in the West Indies under 
the name of Woolly Pyrol. There is hardly any like- 
lihood of the urd becoming of agricultural value in 



OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 553 

the Southern States, as it can scarcely compete with 
the cowpea, except perhaps in Florida as a green- 
manure crop. Unfortunately, however, all of the varieties 
seem much subject to the attack of nematodes. 

670. Moth bean {Phaseolus aconitifolius), — The moth- 
bean is an annual legume, native of India, where it is 
grown principally for its seeds, which are used as human 
food. In habit it forms mats 2 to 3 feet in diameter and 
12 to 18 inches high, with very numerous viny branches, 
the lower ones lying prostrate on the ground. The leaves 
have three leaflets, each divided into 3 to 5 narrow seg- 
ments. This bean has proved to be exceedingly well 
adapted to the conditions in northern Texas, where in 
many ways it is superior to the cowpea. The prostrate 
habit and immense amount of foliage enable it to cover 
the ground so completely that there is practically no 
evaporation of water from the soil. The very viny 
branches and the persistency with which the leaves are 
held make an unusually fine quality of hay, which stock 
of all kinds eat greedily. No difficulty has been found in 
mowing this plant if cultivated in rows, as is usually neces- 
sary in semi-arid regions, if the mower be started under 
the first plant. 

The yield to the acre during the three years in which it 
was under trial averaged about 2 tons, fully equal to that 
of the cowpea. Under favorable conditions the pods are 
produced in large numbers and show no tendency to shatter. 
The roots are remarkably well provided with tubercles, 
indicating that the plant is a very efficient nitrogen 
gatherer. So far as can be ascertained in limited experi- 
ence with it, it is somewhat more drought resistant than 
the cowpea, with which crop it will necessarily compete 
agriculturally. It seems reasonably certain that this 



554 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

plant will become of considerable use in southwestern 
Kansas, western Oklahoma and northern Texas. Where 
the rainfall is greater, comparative experiments indicate 
that the cowpea is distinctively preferable. 

The methods employed in growing cowpeas are satis- 
factory for the moth bean. The crop should be planted 
in rows from 2J to 3 feet apart, with plants every 2 to 3 
inches. This requires from 5 to 6 pounds of seed to the 
acre. Owing to the thick mat of vines produced, the crop 
can be easily harvested with a mower by setting the cutter 
bar low. At least two cultivations should be given and 
the surface soil left as smooth as possible, so as to facili- 
tate harvesting. The crop should not be harvested 
until it has made its maximum growth. The mass of 
green forage can best be cured in windrows and later hauled 
and stored without putting into cocks. 

671. Adzuki bean (Phaseolus angularis). — The adzuki 
bean is probably native to eastern Asia, but the wild 
plant is not known. It is extensively cultivated in Man- 
churia, Korea and Japan, and is rarely found in the 
hill country of northern India. In Japan about 350,000 
acres are grown annually. It is readily distinguished 
from the mung bean, to which it is closely related, by the 
pods and seeds. The seeds of this species are about the 
size of an average garden pea, but are oblong in shape, and 
red, cream, orange or mottled in color. The pods are 
mostly pale colored and smooth, resembling small cowpea 
pods, while those of the mung bean are dark colored, 
smaller, and hairy. This bean resembles an upright cowpea 
in its habits of growth, but the stems are not as large and 
hardly as woody. It is adapted to essentially the same 
conditions as the soybean. 

In Japan and Manchuria the adzuki bean is grown 



OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 555 

entirely for human food, and as a producer of seed it excels 
any other bean adapted to the region in which it will 
grow, excepting the soybean. On account of its heavy 
yield of seed it is likely to become of some impor- 
tance in the United States, either for human food or 
for growing to feed animals. The plants are smaller 
than cowpeas or soybeans, so the yield of herbage is 
but moderate. 

The adzuki bean does not compete satisfactorily with 
weeds and therefore must be planted in cultivated rows 
which may be from 18 inches to 3 feet apart, depending 
on the variety and the method of cultivation. The earli- 
est varieties mature in about 90 days, while the latest 
varieties require 140 days. 

672. Bonavist or hyacinth bean {Dolichos lablab). — 
This bean is probably a native of Africa, but has been 
cultivated since ancient, perhaps prehistoric, times in 
southern Asia, as well as in Africa. The ripe seeds, as well 
as the green pods, are used for human food. 

The bonavist is an annual except in the tropics, where 
it may persist two years or more. In a general way it 
resembles the cowpea, but the stems are harder, and the 
plant more viny, but when supported, often grows to a 
height of 20 to 25 feet. The flowers are sweet scented 
and borne in panicles, 4 to 18 inches long ; the much- 
compressed pods are shaped like a broad scimitar and 
the seeds have a conspicuous white caruncle extending 
one-third of their circumference. 

The varieties are numerous, at least 30, and differ in 
earliness ; color of foliage, green or purple ; color of flowers, 
white, pink or purple ; size, shape and color of the pods 
and seeds, the latter being white, reddish, black or 
speckled. The varieties with purple foliage are often 



556 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

grown as ornamentals. One variety with white, waxy 
pods is excellent as a vegetable. 

The adaptations of the bonavist are i^ractically identi- 
cal with those of the cowpea, and it may be culti- 
vated by identical methods. When grown in fields for 
hay, they have given very promising results in southern 
Kansas and northern Texas, being at least equal to cow- 
peas in yield and palatability. Some varieties are heavy 
seed producers, yielding about as much as cowpeas. The 
habit of all the varieties is very much more viny than 
cowpeas, in a general way being intermediate between 
cowpeas and velvet beans. When grown in Virginia 
with corn for silage or with sorghum for hay, they have 
outyielded cowpeas, the vines being much more rapid 
growers. There are two possible objections to them, 
however. The vines grow very much more rapidly than 
the cornstalks and tend to bind the rows of corn together, 
and there is also a much larger mass of herbage covering 
the ground than in the case of cowpeas, much of which 
cannot be saved in harvesting. 

In Cuba this bean has been considered superior to the 
cowpea. Like many other legumes, however, the bonavist 
is susceptible both to the root-knot caused by nematodes 
and to wilt, although it is possible that varieties resistant 
to these diseases may be found, as has been the case with 
the cowpea. At the present time, however, the bonavist 
offers no particular promise throughout the cotton region 
except in Texas. In drought resistance it is at least equal 
to the cowpea and apparently somewhat superior. In 
all respects it will have to meet the cowpea in competi- 
tion, and it still remains to be determined whether in any 
part of the country it will be sufficiently superior to the 
cowpea to warrant its general culture. The roots are 



OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 557 

remarkably well provided with tubercles ; indeed, in this 
respect far surpassing the cowpea. 

673. Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloha). — Guar is an 
annual, native of India, where it has long been cultivated 
to a limited extent. The plant is grown both for green 
forage and for the seed, which according to Duthie is 
used mainly to fatten cattle. 

The plants are stiff and erect, simple stemmed or with 
comparatively few branches, and 3 to 6 feet high. The 
leaves are trifoliolate and angularly toothed. The small 
flowers are numerous in short erect axillary racemes. 
The pods are flat, 1| to 2 inches long, and about 7-seeded. 

Guar is adapted to about the same general conditions 
as the cowpea, but it does not ripen its seed in northern 
Virginia. It is especially characterized by its remarkable 
drought resistance. At Chico, California, a fine crop was 
produced without a drop of rain falling upon it from the 
time it was planted until nearly ready to harvest. During 
the whole season these plots showed no suffering whatever 
from the drought, which seriously affected adjoining plots 
of Kafir corn and sorghum. Similarly marked drought 
resistance was shown at San Antonio, Texas. 

Guar is very prolific, a single plant grown at Chico 
producing 260 pods. The yield in India is stated to be 
about 13 bushels to the acre, but small plots in this country 
have shown a considerably greater yield. 

There are many varieties, some of them with single 
stems ; others branched from the base. The upright- 
growing varieties are preferable, at least from a seed-pro- 
ducing standpoint. Some of the varieties have much 
larger seeds than others, and on this account are more 
desirable. 

In regard to its palatability to live stock, the evidence 



558 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

is thus far somewhat conflicting. At the Oklahoma 
Experiment Station the cattle ate the straw readily after 
the seeds had been thrashed out, notwithstanding that it 
was decidedly coarse and the leaves had fallen. Most 
experimenters report that their mules and cows eat it as 
well as cowpeas. G. A. Schattenberg, of Boerne, Texas, 
found that his sheep ate it readily, and he regards it 
as an exceedingly valuable plant for pasture. A few 
experimenters have had less satisfactory experiences, in 
some cases the animals absolutely refusing to eat it. 
The mixed results would lead to the belief that most 
animals will acquire a taste for it, as animals commonly 
refuse a new forage at first. Its use in India certainly 
confirms this idea. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 

There are parts of America to which none of the pe- 
rennial clovers or alfalfa are well adapted and for which a 
good perennial legume is greatly to be desired. This need 
is greatest in the South. In Europe sainfoin, kidney 
vetch, and other perennials have been profitably employed, 
but none of these seems to possess much value for America. 
Among recently exploited crops of this class, kudzu is 
probably the most promising. 

SAINFOIN (Onohrychis vicicefolia) 

674. Description. — Sainfoin is also known as esparcet 
or esparsette. A synonym of its botanical name is Ono- 
hrychis sativa Lam. It occurs wild in most of the southern 
half of Europe and eastward to Lake Baikal. About 
twelve botanical varieties have been described from 
Europe, but none of these has come into agricultural use. 

Sainfoin is a very long-lived, deep-rooted perennial. 
It is stated by Lawson that plants may live 100 years. 
The root may reach a diameter of 2 inches and extend 
to a depth of 20 feet or more. From the branched crown 
arise numerous stout, erect stems which reach a height of 
1 to 2 feet. The leaves are odd-pinnate with 13 to 15 
leaflets. The rose-colored (rarely white) flowers are in 
an erect, close raceme 2 to 5 inches long. The one-seeded 

559 



560 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

pods are brown, indehiscent, lenticular and reticulated 
on the surface. 

675. Agricultural history. — The culture of sainfoin prob- 
ably dates back about 400 years. It was first cultivated 
in southern France, the first definite record according to 
Vianne being in 1582. Its culture was first described 
in 1629. It was grown in Germany in the seventeenth 
century, but not in Italy until the eighteenth century. 

Its spread over Europe had a very marked effect inas- 
much as it led to the profitable cultivation of much dry 
calcareous land, which before had been nearly valueless. 
Its culture has been largely restricted to chalky or other 
calcareous soils, particularly where subject to drought. 
In a general way, its distribution is nearly the same as that 
of the grape in Europe, but it does well in places too cool 
for grape culture. 

Sainfoin has never attained any agricultural impor- 
tance in America, though it has often been tested. It 
would seem, however, that on some calcareous soils its 
culture might become profitably established. 

676. Culture. — Sainfoin is usually grown in pure cul- 
tures, the seed being sown at the rate of 120 to 150 pounds 
to the acre if drilled, more if broadcasted. Commercial 
seed is in the hull, and this germinates better than the hulled 
seed. The seed should be sown with a drill a half-inch or 
more deep, or else well harrowed after broadcasting. It is 
usually sown in spring with a nurse crop. Fall sowings 
are apt to winter-kill. 

Usually but one cutting of hay is obtained each season, 
mowed during bloom, which lasts about one week. Under 
favorable conditions a second smaller cutting may be 
secured, but this as a rule is only half as large as the first, 
so that it is generally pastured. Sainfoin has never been 



MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 561 

known to cause bloating. The yield of hay varies from 
1800 to 6000 pounds to the acre, on the average about 
3000 pounds. The yield is as a rule best in the fourth 
year. 

On poor soils fields are reported to last 15 to 22 years. 
On good soils, however, the better practice is to allow the 
fields to stand 4 to 7 years, and then not plant sainfoin 
again for an equal length of time, as soils become '' sick " 
to sainfoin in a manner analogous to " clover sick " soils. 

677. Seed. — Commercial seed of sainfoin is nearly 
always in the hull. Fresh seed should germinate 98 per 
cent and have a purity of 80 per cent. The seed loses its 
viability rapidly, so that after one year it is valueless. 
On this account the commercial seed- is often very low in 
viability. After planting the seed is slow to germinate, 
requiring 2 to 3 weeks before it has all sprouted. 

The seed is all grown in Europe, the average yield being 
stated as about 500 pounds to the acre. 

678. American data. — Sainfoin has been tested in a 
small way at most of the American experiment stations, 
but nowhere on the continent has it become established 
as a crop. Long before the days of experiment stations, 
sainfoin had been frequently tested by farmers, and there 
are many references to it in early American agricultural 
literature. Fields have often been planted in the irrigated 
lands of the West, but neither under such conditions nor 
on the unirrigated lands has it yielded as heavily as alfalfa. 
Under irrigation the average yield for 2 years at the Utah 
Experiment Station was but 2000 pounds to the acre, much 
less than either red clover or alfalfa. Without irrigation 
but one early cutting was secured. 

At the Ontario Agricultural College an average yield 
of 12 tons green matter to the acre has been secured from 
2o 



562 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

spring sowings. In one case the plants survived in a plot 
for 8 to 10 years. 

At the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, 
sainfoin has given the most favorable results reported in 
America. A plot sown May 14 was cut August 12 and 
yielded 3700 pounds hay to the acre ; the next year it was 
cut twice, the yields being respectively 4200 and 5400 
pounds of hay to the acre. During three years the annual 
yields in hay to the acre were respectively 7160, 9160 and 
13,398 pounds. The yield in the third year was larger 
than that of any other of 18 hay crops, either single or in 
mixtures. 

OTHER PERENNIAL LEGUMES 

679. Sulla or Spanish sainfoin {Hedysarum coronarium) 
is a perennial legume native to the Mediterranean region 
of Europe and north Africa, where its culture is locally 
important in Spain, Sicily, Malta and southern France. 
Its culture was recorded in Italy in 1766, but it is probably 
still older. The plant has deep roots ; ascending stems 
1 to 3 feet long ; pinnate leaves with 3 to 5 pairs of oval, 
obtuse, pale leaflets ; flowers numerous in erect racemes ; 
pods flattened, constricted between the circular joints. 

The ordinary variety has red flowers and under favorable 
conditions grows 4 to 5 feet high. Another variety with 
white flowers grows less tall. In Algeria there is said to 
be a red-flowered, biennial variety. 

Sulla is especially adapted to deep soils, especially if 
calcareous, but will grow on any deep, fertile, well-drained 
soils. It is commonly planted in the spring, and thus 
sown, will yield on dry soil one cutting the first season and 
thereafter two. Under irrigation three or more cuttings 
may be obtained. 

The seed germinates poorly, much of it being hard, but 



MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 563 

it is said that after immersing it 5 minutes in boiling 
water a germination of 95 per cent may be obtained. The 
seed costs about 25 cents per pound. 

Fields are usually left 3 years or more and may yield as 
high as 5 tons of hay per season. 

Fairly satisfactory results with sulla have been secured 
in southern Texas with irrigation, but under such conditions 
it cannot compete with alfalfa. At the Massachusetts 
Experiment Station it is said to have lived for several 
years. 

680. Kudzu (Pueraria thunhergiana) is a woody, legu- 
minous vine native to Japan. The leaves resemble in a 
general way those of the common bean, but they are larger 
and angularly lobed, besides being tougher in texture ; 
the stems and leaf stalks are somewhat hairy. As far 
north as Maryland the vine will bloom, but only occasion- 
ally, and then late in the fall. The blossoms are dull pur- 
ple-red in pendent racemes, but a white-flowered variety 
is said to occur in Japan. The pods are thin, very hairy 
and do not mature in the latitude of Washington, D.C. 

Kudzu is remarkable for its very rapid growth during 
the warm weather of midsummer. It succeeds well in 
the humid eastern part of the United States, and will 
grow in almost any type of soil. It succeeds best, how- 
ever, with an abundance of heat and moisture. Kudzu 
is a most excellent vine for arbors and porches, for which 
purpose it is grown in most of the southern cities, 
climbing to a height of 60 feet or more. It survives 
winter as far north as Nova Scotia. 

Kudzu was probably first introduced in the United 
States in 1876, when it was grown at the Centennial 
Exposition in Philadelphia. It is only recently, however, 
that it has created interest as a forage crop, due largely 



564 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

to the work of C. E. Pleas of Chipley, Florida. At- 
tracted by the remarkable luxuriance of the plant and the 
fact that horses and cows ate the leaves greedily, he cured 
some as hay and found it equally palatable to animals. 
He then planted a small field, probably the first of the 
kind ever planted in this country. Under field conditions 
kudzu sends out long prostrate branches which root at 
many of the joints and send up ascending twining branches 
to a height of 2 to 4 feet. Eventually these become sepa- 
rate plants as the prostrate stems usually die between the 
rooted joints. Such a field when full grown presents 
much the appearance of a thick field of cowpeas or soy- 
beans. It can be readily cut with a mower, and the hay 
cures more readily than most legumes, as the leaves are 
less juicy. There is practically no shedding of the leaves 
in curing. 

Some fields in northern Florida have yielded three cut- 
tings of hay a season when well established, and yields of 
as high as 10 tons to the acre have been claimed. In other 
fields the total yield has been smaller than that of velvet 
beans. It seems probable that under favorable conditions 
kudzu will prove a very profitable crop, notwithstanding 
the fact that its perennial nature does not permit of grow- 
ing a winter crop in rotation. 

The seed of kudzu does not germinate very well, so that 
the plant is usually propagated by layers. A new field 
of kudzu is best established by the transplanting of well- 
rooted plants in very early spring. These should be 
planted about 10 feet apart each way, and the first season 
will pretty well cover the ground with prostrate runners. 
The second season a fair crop should be obtained, but the 
field will not produce best results till the third year. The 
planting should be done early in the spring, but in the 



MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 565 

extreme south may be done at any time during the winter. 
To avoid the loss of land the first season, corn may be 
planted after setting out the kudzu, and the two do not 
interfere with each other. 

The culture of kudzu is still in an experimental stage, 
but for permanent hay fields, especially in the South, it 
is likely to become of considerable importance. Small 
experimental plots at the Kentucky and Alabama Experi- 
ment Stations, as well as at Arlington Farm, Virginia, 
have given promising results. At the Florida Experiment 
Station the plot yields have thus far not been as satisfac- 
tory as those of velvet beans. 

681. Flat pea {Lathyrus silvestris var. wagneri) is a 
native of most of Europe and the Caucasus region of 
Asia. The cultivated variety was first domesticated by 
Wagner in 1862 from the Carpathian Mountains, Austria. 
The wild plant was unpalatable and the seeds very hard, 
but Wagner was able to improve the plant by selection in 
both these respects. Since 1878 the plant has been much 
discussed, and at times very extravagant claims made for it. 

The plant is a long-lived perennial closely allied to the 
old perennial sweet pea of the gardens. The stems are 
wing-margined, weak and rechning without support, 
becoming 3 to 6 feet long; leaves with a single pair of 
lanceolate leaflets, and branched tendrils ; flowers pink, 
3 to 10 in a loose raceme. 

It grows but slowly at first and usually does not bloom 
till the second year. In Germany the green plant is said 
to be eaten readily by horses and swine. 

The flat pea has been tested at many of the American 
experiment stations, but by none has the plant been com- 
mended nor has it won for itself a place in American 
agriculture. When once established it may persist for 



566 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

years. At the Michigan Experiment Station one acre 
yielded in its second year two cuttings ; the first cutting, 
June 29, weighed 23,997 pounds green and 5431 pounds 
dry; the second cutting, September 16, weighed 17,188 
pounds green and 3636 pounds dry — a total yield of 20.5 
tons of green matter and 4.5 tons dry hay. Cattle ate 
the green forage readily. 

At the Vermont Experiment Station the second year's 
crop was 6 J tons green matter or If tons hay to the acre, 
and the third year's crop fully as large. 

At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station, flat peas 
gave in two years an average yield to the acre of 17,700 
pounds green herbage of 3700 pounds of hay, but the crop 
is not recommended, because of the difficulty of securing a 
stand, and its unpalatability. 

The flat pea has nowhere in America attained any 
definite status as a field crop, but where a long-lived 
perennial legume is needed in the Northern States, prob- 
ably no other species is better adapted to the purpose. 

682. Kidney vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria) is native to 
much of temperate Europe, Asia and North Africa. It 
was first brought into cultivation in Prussia about 1859. 
Two varieties are cultivated, one with pale yellow and 
the other with reddish flowers, but otherwise they scarcely 
differ. 

The plant is a perennial with roots 3 feet or more long. 
The basal leaves are simple, but the cauline are pinnate. 
The stems are stout and erect, not at all viny as in the true 
vetches, to which it is not closely related. 

Kidney vetch is most important on sandy and calcareous 
soils in North Germany, but is grown to some extent in 
other European countries. It is especially valuable where 
clover and other legumes do not thrive. In all respects 



MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 567 

it is cultivated much like red clover, being sown in Ger- 
many in fall with a grain crop. The plants grow so slowly 
that there is but little fall pasturage after the grain crop 
is removed. Thereafter it yields moderate hay crops for 
two years ; if pastured, it lasts 3 to 4 years. Usually 
but one hay crop a year can be obtained, and the after- 
math is very small. Kidney vetch is, however, rarely 
sown alone but in mixtures, and is better adapted for pas- 
tures than for meadows. Both as pasturage and as hay, 
kidney vetch is more readily eaten by sheep than by other 
animals. It seems never to cause bloating. 

The harvesting of the seed is rather difficult, as, if cut 
too green, it will not thrash out, and if too ripe, it shatters 
much. The plants usually die after seed harvest. The 
seed yield varies from 350 to 700 pounds an acre. A 
bushel weighs 60 to 64 pounds, and one pound contains 
126,000 to 182,000 seeds, according to Stebler. 

Kidney vetch is usually sown in mixtures, but if sown 
alone 20 pounds of seed an acre is used. Werner says 
that the yield of hay on calcareous sand is 5000 to 9000 
pounds an acre ; on good sandy soil, 3500 to 5000 pounds ; 
and on poor sandy soils, 1800 to 2500 pounds ; or on the 
average about 4000 pounds to the acre. 

Kidney vetch has not proved of any particular value 
under American conditions. The plant is not rarely found 
in ballast grounds, but nowhere has it become really natu- 
ralized. It has been tested in a small way at many Ameri- 
can Experiment Stations, but none have recommended 
it as being promising. 

At the Utah Experiment Station it gave a yield of only 
1150 pounds of hay to the acre . At the Ontario Agricultural 
College the average yield for 2 years was 2.6 tons green 
matter to the acre. 



568 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

683. Goat's rue (Galega officinalis) is native from south- 
east Europe to Persia, and came into agricultural use in 
Germany in the latter part of the eighteenth century. 
It seems never to have been much grown, and is not now 
important except in special localities. Goat's rue has 
succeeded well in small trials at many places in the United 
States, but has never come into agricultural use. 

The plant is a deep-rooted perennial with abundant 
stout stems three to four feet high, each terminated by a 
raceme of pale violet flowers, but white-flowered and rose- 
flowered varieties occur. The leaves are numerous and 
pinnately compound. 

Two cuttings are obtained under favorable conditions 
in Europe, and this has also been the experience at Arling- 
ton Farm, Virginia. The plant is too coarse to make good 
hay, and so is used mainly for soiling. In good soil, the 
yield of green substance is said to equal that of alfalfa. 
It is usually sown in spring, and is best grown in cultivated 
rows, never in mixtures. The seeds are rather large, one 
pound containing 62,000, and 22 pounds an acre is the 
rate of seeding. The Utah Experiment Station records 
yields of 4490 pounds of hay to the acre. 

One instance in France is recorded where 54 sheep died 
and 84 were badly affected from eating goat's rue. In 
further tests it was found that 7 pounds of the plant would 
kill a sheep. 

684. Bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) is native 
to much of temperate Europe and Asia. It is a low- 
growing perennial with a stout root and bearing numerous 
slender, ascending or spreading branches 6 to 18 inches 
long. The leaves bear five small leaflets. The bright 
yellow, showy flowers are in umbels of 2 to 6. 

In northern Europe bird's-foot trefoil is considered 



MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 569 

a valuable constituent in pasture lands, and is sometimes 
sown in hay mixtures, but it is too small to be of much 
value for such purpose. 

Bird's-foot trefoil has succeeded well enough in trials 
in nearly all the humid portions of the United States, 
except the extreme south, but its growth is too small to 
warrant its cultivation, and it has not shown any aggres- 
siveness in becoming established. It is nowhere really 
naturalized in North America. 

The seed weighs 60 pounds to the bushel and 11 pounds 
to the acre is seeded, if sown alone. It is expensive to har- 
vest, and this has perhaps prevented the greater use of the 
plant. 

Two varieties of Lotus corniculatus are also utilized 
agriculturally and sold by seedsmen ; namely, var. tenui- 
folius with narrow leaves, and var. villosus with pubescent 
foliage. Another species, Lotus uliginosus, is also offered 
by seedsmen, and not infrequently under the name vil- 
losus, according to Stebler. 

685. Astragalus falcatus is native to the Caucasus region 
and utilized to a small extent in Europe for forage, espe- 
cially in Russia and France. It is a deep-rooted, long- 
lived perennial ; leaves pinnate with 15 to 20 pairs of 
leaflets ; flowers yellowish in a spike-like panicle. This 
species is very hardy and probably will withstand as 
severe conditions as alfalfa. In France it is said not to 
be able to compete with alfalfa on good soil, but to be val- 
uable on poor, dry lands. It begins its growth very early 
in spring, and in France may be cut three times. It is 
mostly fed green, and animals eat it readily. 

This astragalus has grown well at Arlington Farm, Vir- 
ginia ; Pullman, Washington ; and Akron, Colorado. Well- 
grown plants become a foot or more in diameter and 2 to 



570 FOB AGE PLANTS AND TEEIB CULTURE 

2J feet high. The commercial seed is not high priced, but 
much of it is " hard " and does not germinate. The crop 
is worthy of further investigation in connection with dry 
farming. 

686. Furze (Ulex europcBus). — Furze or gorse is a 
spiny leguminous shrub native to northern Europe. 
The leaves are very small, and with the twigs are evergreen. 
The handsome yellow blossoms are much ike those of the 
Scotch broom. 

Furze has never been cultivated for forage in America, 
but it has become established in places along the New 
England coast, and on the Pacific coast in Washington 
and British Columbia. Its adaptation to these regions 
may in time lead to its utilization for forage. 

In Europe it is planted more or less on sandy or rocky 
land, and the crops either cut and fed green in winter, or 
browsed with sheep and cattle. Where cultivated it is cut 
every year, as the year-old branches become quite woody. 



CHAPTER XXV 

MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 

Apart from the grasses and legumes few plants are 
worth cultivating for forage and none of these is of high 
importance. Those discussed in this chapter are the best 
known. 

687. Mexican clover {Richardsonia scahra) is wrongly 
named, as it is not clover at all, but belongs to the family 
Rubiaceoe. In Florida and other Southern States it is 
commonly called purslane or " pusley." Mexican clover 
is native to Mexico, and now extends along the Gulf coast 
and throughout Florida. In the latter region there is 
some question as to whether it is truly native, as it is found 
almost entirely in cultivated land. 

Mexican clover is an annual plant much branched from 
the base, the weak decumbent stems reaching a length of 
1 to 2 feet ; leaves opposite, simple, entire ; flowers small, 
pinkish, crowded into close heads. 

Mexican clover is a summer annual springing up in 
cultivated land in spring after the manner of crab-grass. 
It is especially abundant in sandy land, springing up after 
cultivation has ceased in hoed crops, or after early crops 
have been removed. Under favorable conditions it makes 
a dense mass of herbage 1 foot to nearly 2 feet deep. 
The plant is rather succulent and not easily cured into 
hay, but when well cured is readily eaten by farm animals. 

571 



572 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

The maximum yield of hay is probably about 2 tons to the 
acre. 

Mexican clover may also be used for pasturage, and is 
readily eaten by most farm animals. 

Seed is produced in abundance and can easily be saved, 
but there is no commercial demand, as the plant when 
once established volunteers year after year indefinitely. 
Strictly speaking, it is not a cultivated plant at all, but a 
useful weed comparable in this respect to crab-grass and 
bur clover. In the United States it is adapted only to 
Florida and a relatively narrow region westward to Texas. 
It succeeds best on sandy soils. 

688. Prickly pear {Opuntia spp.). — These ''pears'^ 
are all natives to America. Some of the larger species 
which grow to a height of from 3 to 6 feet or more and 
which have flat, oblong or circular joints, have long been 
utilized for forage. Some of these species, especially 
those which are nearly spineless, were long ago introduced 
into northern Africa, where they are grown quite extensively, 
not only for the fruit but as feed for camels and bullocks. 
In Texas they have been used as forage, especially during 
periods of drought, for 50 years or more. In recent years 
their cultivation for forage has received considerable atten- 
tion in the United States. 

In the United States the larger species of Opuntia are 
well adapted only to southern Texas and California and 
portions of Arizona and New Mexico. They will with- 
stand a temperature as low as 20° Fahrenheit for a short 
time, but where the temperature often falls lower their 
culture is not advisable. The spiny species especially 
endure periods of drought remarkably well, but to obtain 
a satisfactory growth under cultivation a good supply 
of moisture is necessary. The root is comparatively 



MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 573 

shallow, and without a good supply of soil moisture the 
growth is exceedingly slow. Prickly pears are like other 
plants, in that the best growth is secured on the best soils, 
although the plants will make some growth on any type 
of soil so long as it is well drained and there is sufficient 
moisture for growth. All of the species thrive best in 
regions where there is a season of low moisture supply dur- 
ing which the plants become semi-dormant. 

Prickly pears may be propagated either by seed or by 
plant joints. Propagation by seed is, however, more 
costly and a longer time must elapse before the plants can 
be harvested. Griffiths finds that there is considerable 
difference between plants of the same species grown from 
seed and propagated from cuttings. The latter tend to 
be tree-like, while the former are headed on the ground 
and without distinct trunks. In propagating vegetatively, 
single joints 1 to 3 years old should be used, as younger 
joints are not as certain and do not start off as vigorously 
as the older ones. Old trunks which have lost their joint 
character are also satisfactory. It is preferable to cut 
the joints below the articulation. In planting, the best 
plan is to have the joint covered | to f of its length. In 
plantings thus far made the plants have been put 3 feet 
apart in rows 6 feet wide, but with the larger sorts 8-foot 
rows are probably more advantageous. When thus 
planted they can be easily cultivated, and better results 
are secured by cultivating fields often enough to maintain 
a good tilth and destroy weeds. 

The prickly pears can be harvested and fed at any time 
of the year. Cattle, however, do not like the young 
joints and there is therefore considerable waste in har- 
vesting the plants while growth is active. In Cahfornia 
it has been found inadvisable to harvest them in winter 



574 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

from December to March, as during the cool season the 
remaining portion of the stem is hkely to rot instead of 
heaUng over. 

Under moderately favorable conditions yields of 20 to 
25 tons of green matter to the acre may be obtained. 

Prickly pears are readily eaten by cattle, hogs, sheep 
and goats. The spineless ones may be fed directly, 
but the spiny sorts require preliminary treatment. The 
spines may be removed by singeing either with a brush 
fire or by means of a gasoline torch, or the plants may be 
chopped into pieces and piled into heaps when the spines 
become softened so that they do not trouble animals, or 
the whole plant may be steamed in vats. The feeding 
value is low, as from 80 to 90 per cent or more of the plant 
consists of water. Nevertheless, very satisfactory results 
have been obtained in using prickly pears as roughage 
feed for dairy and beef cattle as well as for hogs, sheep and 
goats. 

Under Texas conditions some of the spiny sorts have 
given more satisfactory results than the spineless ones. 
The latter are more subject to damage by rabbits. 

689. Sunflower {Helianthiis annuus). — The sunflower 
is native to the western United States, where the wild form 
often occupies extensive areas. It is an annual with a 
stout, erect, usually simple stem which becomes woody ; 
alternate ovate petioled leaves ; and one or more large 
half -nodding heads with a black disk and numerous golden- 
yellow rays. Under cultivation numerous varieties have 
been developed, some with all the flowers ligulate. The 
agriculturally valuable sorts are those which produce a 
single large head, which may be 8 to 12 inches in diameter. 

Sunflowers are grown extensively in Russia for the 
seeds, which are used both for poultry feed and for oil pro- 



MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 575 

duction. In America their culture has not been large, 
partly from the fact that there are several insects that live 
naturally in the seeds. 

The plants are cultivated much after the manner of 
corn in rows 28 to 36 inches wide, with the plants a foot 
apart in the rows. 

Sometimes sunflowers are grown thickly and cut for 
fodder, but the woody nature of the plants makes them 
undesirable for this purpose. 

At the New Hampshire Experiment Station three varie- 
ties gave the following yields of heads to the acre : Rus- 
sian, 23,958 pounds ; White Russian, 19,360 pounds ; 
and Grey, 20,812 pounds. 

In Ontario they have been grown to some extent as a 
forage crop, the heads being put into silos with corn. 
There seems, however, to be no economy in this practice. 
At the Ontario Agricultural College three varieties have 
been grown continuously for a period of years, the result- 
ing yield data being as follows : — 





Average 
Diameter 

OF 

25 Heads 

(lOjTR.) 


Average 
Height 

(13yrs.) 


Average Yield to 


the Acre 


Varieties 


Heads 
(13 yrs.) 


Whole 
Crop 

(13 yrs.) 


Grain 
(12 yrs.) 


Mammoth Russian 
White Beauty . 
Black Giant 


Inches 

7.29 
7.38 
7.08 


Inches 

100 

87 
107 


Tons 

5.97 
5.60 
6.32 


Tons 

18.05 
16.18 
22.36 


Bushels 

74.7 
74.4 
72.0 



According to the last census, the total area of cultivated 
sunflowers in the United States was 4731 acres, which 
yielded 63,677 bushels of seed. Illinois, with 3979 acres, 
produced most of the crop ; namely, 49,064 bushels. 



576 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

690. Spurrey (Spergula sativa). — Cultivated spurrey 
has been much confused with the very similar corn 
spurrey (Spergula arvensis). The latter is generally in- 
troduced in America as a rather harmless weed in culti- 
vated soil. Common spurrey was cultivated for forage 
in Europe in 1566 and probably much earher. 

Spurrey is much employed as a catch crop and for 
green manure on sandy lands in north central Europe, 
especially France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Denmark 
and Russia. It is adapted to a moist, cool growing season, 
and under such conditions will produce a crop of green 
fodder 12 to 14 inches high in 7 or 8 weeks. Three crops 
may thus be grown on the same piece of land in a season, 
the first being sown as soon as danger of frost is over; 
or one crop may be grown after a crop of winter grain is 
harvested and before another is planted. It is often sown 
with a grain crop in spring, and after it has grown in the 
stubble, used as pasture. If sown alone, it is cut when in 
bloom and fed green or cured into hay, the latter being 
rather difficult, as the plant is quite succulent. The value 
of spurrey for sandy lands in Europe is so great that 
some writers have called it the ^' clover of sandy soils." 

Spurrey has often been tested in America, beginning 
with 1853, but thus far it has been but little used. One 
crop can be grown in early spring and another in fall if 
the frosts are not too early. The plant languishes, how- 
ever, in our hot midsummers, to which it is not adapted. 
Young plants do not withstand frost, but when well 
grown orcUnary frosts are not injurious. 

The most extensive investigations were those conducted 
on the sandy Jack pine land of Michigan. The results 
reported were very promising, but the culture of the crop 
does not seem to have become estabUshed. At Grayling, 



MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 577 

Michigan, seed yields of 8 to 12 bushels an acre were 
secured. There is likelihood, however, that spurrey may 
in time be a useful plant in America on very sandy lands 
in the Northern States, when economic conditions will 
justify their development. On better lands it is not likely 
ever to be used. 

In Germany the hay yields are said to be about 6000 
pounds and the seed yields 450 to 600 pounds an acre. 
The straw is nearly as good feed as the hay. 

Spurrey has sometimes been condemned as a weed, but 
such references belong to corn spurrey and not to the 
cultivated plant. The seed is small, one pound containing 
1,350,000. The usual rate of seeding is 15 to 20 pounds 
to the acre. 

Another species, the Giant Spurrey (Spergula maxima), 
has also been cultivated since 1841. This is a larger plant 
with larger seeds, 740,000 weighing one pound. It reaches 
its growth in 10 to 12 weeks and ripens its seed in 16 
weeks. Unlike common spurrey, this species is adapted 
to heavier soils rich in lime, and its culture is of much less 
importance. At the Michigan Upper Peninsula Station, 
it was sown July 28 and cut September 10, giving a yield 
of about 3.5 tons hay to the acre. 

691. Yarrow {Achillea viillefolium) , in some of its numer- 
ous forms, is native throughout the north temperate zone. 
The plant has the strong odor of chamomile, but cattle 
and sheep eat it when young. It is a long-lived, deep- 
rooted perennial ; leaves pinnately divided into very 
fine, numerous segments ; heads numerous, small, white- 
rayed, in a dense flat umbel. 

Yarrow will grow in any type of soil if well drained and, 
because of its persistence, has been used in pasture mix- 
tures for poor, hilly lands in Europe. It will withstand 

2p 



578 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

heavy trampling and close grazing, and if kept closely 
clipped on lawns, makes a fine turf. The seed is very 
small, one pound containing 1,667,000 seeds. 

At the Ontario Agricultural College it gave a yield to 
the acre of 3.5 tons green matter or .9 tons of hay. 

692. Sachaline {Polygonum sachalinense) is a native of 
the island of Saghalien. It was introduced into cultiva- 
tion in 1869 as an ornamental and has been used for this 
purpose ever since. In 1893 it was considered in France 
to possess some value as forage, and in the succeeding 
years was much advertised and extravagant claims made 
for it. 

The plant is a stout perennial herb, spreading by root- 
stocks, and growing to a height of 6 to 10 feet ; the leaves 
are heart-shaped, and the greenish flowers inconspicuous. 
Well-established plants produce an abundance of herbage, 
and this is eaten readily by all farm animals. The habit 
of the plant adapts it better to green feeding and possibly 
silage than for dry fodder. In Germany it is said to 
yield 8 to 16 tons green matter to the acre. 

The difficulty with sachaline as a forage crop is that it 
is troublesome to start, hard stemmed, and does not yield 
more than corn or sorghum. Its rootstock habit makes 
it rather difficult to destroy promptly, but it is never 
troublesome as a weed. Its only practicable use would 
seem to be to furnish an abundance of green feed from a 
small area without planting each year. 

Sachaline was tested at many of the American experi- 
ment stations, but has not commended itself as worthy of 
culture except as an ornamental. Plants may be started 
either by seeds or propagated by rootstocks. 

693. Burnet {Sanguisorha minor) is a native of Europe. 
It was first cultivated in England about 1760 as a pasture 



MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 579 

plant, and since that time has been used in England and 
France. It is a deep-rooted perennial that withstands 
heavy pasturing, and in England continues to grow during 
most of the winter. For these reasons it is commonly 
used in pasture mixtures, especially on poor, dry hills 
where the soil is calcareous. 

On good land, plants will grow 2 feet high, and under 
such conditions yield as much as 6 tons of green matter 
to the acre. Burnet is, however, not well adapted to such 
use. 

In America burnet has not yet been found sufficiently 
valuable to justify cultivation. It has been tested at 
many experiment stations, but mostly in small plots 
and not as a pasture plant. From the fact that it 
has become spontaneous in New England, it may be 
worthy of more attention as a pasture plant for that 
region. 

At the Utah Experiment Station a small plot yielded 
hay at the rate of 1567 pounds to the acre. 

694. Buckhorn (Plantago lanceolata), or narrow-leaved 
plantain, is a native of Europe, but has become a common 
weed nearly everywhere in America, having been intro- 
duced as an impurity in grass and clover seeds. It is a 
long-lived perennial which maintains itself firmly on any 
soil so long as it is well drained. On this account buckhorn 
has been used more or less in Europe in pasture mixtures 
for poor hill lands, and to some extent has also been 
included in hay mixtures. In America it is commonly 
looked upon as a troublesome weed, especially in alfalfa 
and red clover. The herbage, however, is readily grazed 
upon by sheep and cattle and eaten when cured into hay. 
As a pasture plant it is apparently deserving of more con- 
sideration than it has received, especially for thin, stony 



580 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

soils. It is probably never necessary to sow buckhorn, 
as more or less seed is usually mixed with grass and clover 
seeds, and where once established the plant spreads abun- 
dantly by its seed. While the plant is justly condemned 
as a troublesome weed in lawns and elsewhere, its value 
for pasturage should not be overlooked. 

695. Prickly comfrey {Sy7nphyhi7n asperri?nwn) is a 
perennial herb native to the Caucasus region. The plant 
has a large taproot 8 or 9 feet deep ; stems 2 to 4 feet high ; 
leaves oblong, large, rough, sometimes a foot or more long ; 
flowers tubular, bright-blue, nodding in one-sided clusters. 
The plant is hardy, withstanding the winters in Ontario 
and succeeding well in most of the United States. 

It was introduced into Englancf as early as 1801 as an 
ornamental, and beginning with 1830 has from time to 
time been praised as a forage plant, especially to furnish 
green feed for hogs, sheep and cows. 

The seed of prickly comfrey is not very satisfactory, 
so the plant is usually propagated by divisions of the crown 
or by sections of the taproot. On rich soil with intensive 
cultivation prickly comfrey may be cut green from 3 to 
6 times in a season, and the yield is said to range from 
10 to 50 tons of green matter to the acre. The plants 
are long-lived and are said to produce abundantly for 
15 to 20 years. 

The plant has been tested by a number of experiment 
stations, but has never come into much use in America. 
Yields have been reported by various American experi- 
ment stations in green matter to the acre as follows : — 

Ontario Agricultural College, 9f tons in 4 cuttings; 
New York (Geneva), 14 to 16 tons; Vermont, 46 tons; 
North Carolina, 6| to 17 J tons ; Wisconsin, 33| tons. 

Even with these large yields comfrey can hardly compete 



MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 581 

with other forage crops. At the Wisconsin Experiment 
Station the yield of dry matter to the acre for red clover 
was 23 per cent greater than that of comfrey. At the New 
York Experiment Station alfalfa yielded 16 tons of green 
matter as compared to 14 tons by prickly comfrey. At 
the Pennsylvania Experiment Station the yield of diges- 
tible matter by prickly comfrey was considerably less than 
that produced by either Kafir corn or cowpeas. 

The value of prickly comfrey would seem to be restricted 
entirely to that of a soilage crop where a large amount of 
green matter is to be grown on a limited acreage, but even 
in this respect it is surpassed by other crops. As a silage 
crop it has been used somewhat, but the product is said 
to be disagreeable in odor. Animals are somewhat averse 
to eating comfrey at first, either green or preserved, but 
soon acquire a taste for it. 

696. Australian saltbush {Atriplex semibaccata) . — This 
plant is native to alkali lands in Australia, where it has 
long been recognized as a valuable natural forage for sheep. 
It was introduced into the United States in the hope that 
it would be profitable as a crop to grow on lands too alka- 
line for ordinary crops. This hope, however, has not been 
realized, and about all that is cultivated are a few fields 
to supply the small demand for seed which still persists 
from the advertising the plant received. In southern 
California the Australian saltbush has become naturalized 
and moderately aggressive in a few places, but elsewhere 
it has not shown this trait. 

After Atriplex semibaccata was introduced, many other 
species from Australia and South Africa were tested. 
Many of them grow well and some are quite ornamental, 
but none of them has come into use as a crop. 

On the whole, the introduced species of Atriplex are 



582 FORAGE PLANTS ANT) THEIR CULTURE 

little, if any, superior to the numerous native species that 
grow on the alkaline lands of the West. None of the 
species yet introduced has shown any tendency to spread 
and become aggressive, except the European Atriplex 
hastata L. in the Columbia Basin. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE 
FORAGES 

Root crops were all developed primarily for use as 
human food and are still mainly grown for this purpose. 
They are similarly useful, however, as rich feed for do- 
mestic animals, and where they can be grown more cheaply 
than grain are important for such use. 

697. Root crops. — This general phrase is used somewhat 
loosely in agronomic literature. In the broadest sense 
it includes all plants whose roots, tubers, bulbs or other 
underground vegetative parts are utilized. More gener- 
ally, tubers, such as potatoes, and bulbs, such as onions, 
are excluded. As usually employed the term includes 
primarily beets or mangels, rutabagas, turnips and carrots. 
Some other roots used as forage are cassava, artichokes, 
sweet potatoes and chufas, but these are adapted to 
warmer climates. In a looser usage rape, kale and cabbage 
have been included with " root crops." The German 
term hackfruchte or " hoe crops " is even less definite, 
including not only ordinary root crops, but pumpkins, 
cabbage and kale. 

All of the root crops used for forage are also used as 
vegetables for human food, but the varieties grown for 
forage are the larger, coarser ones which produce corre- 
spondingly heavier yields. 

583 



684 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Root crops for forage comprise in America but a small 
portion of the root crops grown. Much the larger part of 
the '' root '' crop is grown for vegetables and the acreage of 
beets for sugar is far greater than that of roots for forage. 

The portion of the plant harvested in " root " crops is 
truly a thickened root in cassava, chufas and sweet pota- 
toes. In beets, carrots, rutabagas and turnips, it is partly 
root and partly stem which merge insensibly together. 

A root crop may replace any other cultivated crop in a 
rotation. As a rule four or more years should elapse be- 
fore the same or a related root crop is grown on the same 
piece of land, as otherwise the damage by insects and 
disease is apt to be large. 

698. Importance of root crops. — Root crops for forage 
are extensively grown for stock feed in northern Europe, 
especially Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, Denmark 
and Scandinavia. In America they have thus far been 
grown mainly in Canada. In the United States they are 
nowhere important, but according to the thirteenth census 
are most largely grown in the states of California, Colo- 
rado, Utah, New Mexico, Wisconsin, Washington, Oregon, 
Michigan and New York in order. The large use of 
forage roots in the first four states is probably associated 
with beet culture for sugar. 

On the accompanying map is shown the number of 
acres of roots for forage in each state, according to the 
Thirteenth United States Census, and in each province 
according to the Fifth Canadian Census. 

In a general way the lack of importance of root crops 
in the United States is correlated with the extensive cul- 
ture of corn, which supplies a cheap grain feed for live 
stock. In northern localities, on the Pacific Coast and 
at high altitudes where corn or other equally cheap grain 



ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 585 

cannot be grown, root crops furnish the most satisfactory 
substitute. One pound of dry matter in root crops is 
considered about equal in feeding value to one pound of 
grain. 

Perhaps the principal reason why root crops are not 
grown where corn or grain sorghums can be produced is 
the large amount of hand labor required by the former. 




Fig. 62. — Root crops 1909-1910. Figures = acres. 

If such be the explanation, root crops are likely to become 
more important as population becomes denser. At the 
Cornell Experiment Station the average cost for four 
years of producing one acre of mangels was $77.28 as con- 
trasted with $40.77 for corn. The cost per pound of dry 
matter was low enough to be a profitable substitute for 
part of the grain rations. 

699. Kinds of root crops. — The most important root 
crops grown for forage are mangels and sugar beets (Beta 



586 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

vulgaris), rutabaga {Brassica campestris), turnip {Brassica. 
rapa), carrot {Daucus carota) and parsnip {Pastinaca 
sativa). These are all cultivated as vegetables; their 
culture on a large scale is by essentially the same methods. 
All of these root crops are best adapted to regions with a 
cool growing season, and hence their culture is most impor- 
tant northward. Southward the mangel and the turnip 
are grown more successfully than the others. 

All of these root crops require a fertile, loamy soil to 
secure the largest yields. They are nearly always grown 
in rows wide enough to permit of easy cultivation. The 
culture of most of them, however, involves considerable 
hand labor, especially in thinning the rows. 

700. Comparison of various root crops. — Inasmuch 
as mangels, sugar beets, rutabagas, turnips, carrots and 
parsnips are all adapted to very closely the same conditions, 
the problem arises as to which is to be preferred. In 
Great Britain more than 3 times as many rutabagas are 
grown as mangels, while in Germany, the reverse is the 
case. In Canada the acreage of mangels in 1910 was 
53,576 against 76,488 for rutabagas and turnips. 

In feeding value these roots apparently stand in the 
following order, sugar beets highest, followed by parsnips, 
mangels, rutabagas, carrots, turnips, but the differences 
are small. 

The yields of mangels and rutabagas are decidedly 
greater than other roots, so the latter are grown more for 
special purposes or for variety. At the Ontario Agri- 
cultural College, the average yields to the acre for 26 years 
have been 27,600 pounds mangels, 25,740 pounds ruta- 
bagas and 20,760 pounds carrots. The yields at five 
different stations are compiled in the accompanying 
table : — 



ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 587 



h-l 

Hi 
M 

o 

o 

« 
ij 

H-l 
M 

Q 

iz; 
<i 

f^ 
o 
o 

P5 
;z; 






Q 

M 

« 

M 

E-i 
< 

< 
O 

O 



P-l OQ 



o S 






o 









? z s 

O «< a 






05 

o 
o 

a 
S 

S 
» 



CO o 

00 r-! 



-^ CO o ^ 

CD (N iC ^ 



Tf CO ro 
CO oi ci 



CO 00 CO (- 



1^ 'N 



CO lO >oq 

CD C^ 'H 



ic (M --; 

CO c<i o 



CO q '^ 

CO Tt< CD 



.-I C^ 

00 CO 



t- (N CM 

ci -^ (N 



J^ > S 



CO > 



CO ^ 



C3 fl 



fe i^i 

^O 






— 03 £, I- 



^,OQ3^> 



53 S^ !3 

> m ra 

5 >> > 

03 I 
+i iC lO 



> .2 



-. a; o3 

S, O lO 






C 03 'h 



0) o3 



u 



o 






588 



FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 



The relation of roots to corn and other crops, as secured 
in Maine, show that even in the Northern States corn may 
outyield any root crop : — 

Summary of Average Yields of Fodder and Root Crops 
FOR 1890 AND 1891, Maine Experiment Station 



Crop 


Acre 

Yield of 

Crop as 

Harvested 


Acre 

Yield of 

Dry Matter 


Acre 

Yield op 

Digestible 

Dry Matter 


Southern corn 

Rutabagas 

Hungarian grass 

Sugar beets 

English flat turnips .... 

Field corn (flint) 

Sweet corn 

Mangel-wurzels 

Peas (seed) 

Timothy hay (assumed crop) 


Pounds 

39,645 
31,695 
18,910 
17,645 
28,500 
21,690 
18,260 
15,375 
1,665 
4,000 


Pounds 

5,580 
3,415 
4,680 
2,590 
2,559 
3,110 
2,671 
1,613 
1,415 
3,500 


Pounds 

3,850 
2,978 
2,967 
2,447 
2,375 
2,208 
1,870 
1,266 
1,231 
2,065 



701. Roots compared with corn and sorghum. — At 

the Michigan Experiment Station the yield of various 
root crops, both green and dry, was compared with those 
of corn and sorghum. 

Comparative Acre Yields of Root Crops, Corn and 
Sorghum at the Michigan Experiment Station 



Crop 



Carrots . . . 
Long red mangels 
Tankard mangels 
Rutabagas . . 
Sugar beets . . 
Corn .... 
Sorghum . . . 



Green Weight 


Dry Weight 


TO THE Acre 


TO THE Acre 


Pounds 


Pounds 


28,836 


3,322 


25,616 


3,381 


21,744 


2,111 


31,028 


3,742 


28,320 


5,347 


29,684 


8,656 


38,676 


7,700 



BOOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 589 

These results agree with those obtained by many other 
experimenters ; namely, that where corn or sorghum will 
grow well, they will produce larger yields of dry matter 
than root crops. 

RAPE (Brassica napus) 

702. Rape is a native of temperate Europe. The wild 
plant is an annual, but the cultivated form may be either 
annual or biennial. The former is grown only for the 
seed, from which oil is extracted ; and the latter mainly 
for forage. Like the other Brassicas it is best adapted 
to a cool growing season, and for heavy yields rich, moist 
soil is required. 

There are several varieties of rape, but the Dwarf 
Essex is practically the only one grown for forage. An- 
other variety, the Dwarf Victoria, is nearly as good, but 
in long-continued trials at the Ontario Agricultural Col- 
lege proved somewhat inferior. 

703. Importance. — Rape is not an important forage 
crop in North America, but deserves far more attention 
than it has received. It is especially valuable for furnish- 
ing good feed in autumn and early winter when little other 
green feed is available. If thus utilized, it conserves the 
stock of hay and silage for winter use. 

704. Seeding. — Rape may be sown in the North from 
May 1 to about the end of July. In Canada June 15 is 
about the best date. In the South fall sowing is most 
satisfactory. The seed should be planted about one-half 
inch deep, as with deeper planting the stand is likely to 
be very imperfect. At the Ontario Agricultural College 
large seed gave decidedly better yields than either medium 
or small seeds. 

When rape is sown alone, the seed bed should be well 



590 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

prepared. Three methods of seeding may be used ; 
namely, in cultivated rows, in drill rows and broadcasted. 
If planted in rows to be cultivated, the rows should be as 
close as possible to permit of easy cultivation ; 24 to 28 
inches is the usual width of the rows, but they may be as 
narrow as 18 inches, or as wide as 36 inches. In 24-inch 
rows, 2 pounds of seed an acre is sufficient, and more 
than 3 pounds should not be used. 

When planted in close rows with a grain drill, 4 pounds 
of seed an acre is used. If broadcasted, the same or a 
slightly larger amount is necessary. Too dense seeding 
causes crowding and consequently smaller growth. 

At the Ontario Experimental Farm seed was drilled at 
various rates to the acre from 1.2 to 186.6 pounds. The 
lightest seeding gave the best results, but up to 6 pounds 
there was no great difference. The highest yield in the 
series was 18.5 tons and the lowest 14.1 tons. At the 
Tennessee Experiment Station rape was seeded March 
31, April 16, April 30, May 14, June 15 and July. The last 
two seedings were failures. The others yielded respec- 
tively 8.5, 7.0, 6.0 and 3.9 tons green crop to the acre. 

705. Place in rotations. — In the North rape is best 
adapted as a catch crop to come after oats or other spring- 
seeded grain. In the South it may take the place of crim- 
son clover or fall-sown grain. 

Where rape does well, it makes a dense growth which 
tends to smother out many weeds, and the subsequent 
close pasturing will destroy many of the remainder. 

706. Sowing with another crop. — Rape is sometimes 
sown in spring with or in a crop of grain, such as wheat, 
oats or rye. One method is to broadcast the rape when 
the grain is two or three inches high, covering the seed 
by harrowing afterwards. Under favorable conditions a 



ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 591 

good stand of rape is obtained, which in a few weeks after 
harvesting the grain is ready for pasturing. At the 
Iowa Experiment Station rape was sown with oats in 
spring, but it grew large enough to interfere somewhat 
with the harvesting of the oat crop. 

Sowing rape in corn at the last cultivation is frequently 
practiced, and where there is sufficient moisture for both 
crops, good results are obtained. 

In Oregon rape is sometimes sown in spring with red 
clover, and the crops pastured in fall and early winter. 

707. Utilization. — Rape is commonly utilized by pas- 
turing to sheep or hogs. Cattle eat it readily, but destroy 
a considerable proportion by trampling. The loss from 
this cause is less where the rape is grown in rows, as the 
animals tend to follow the rows. Animals feeding on 
rape consume larger amounts of salt than usual, so that 
this should be freely supplied. It seems to prevent too 
great a purging effect which rape often produces. Most 
animals have to acquire a taste for rape before they will 
eat it readily. Care must be taken to avoid bloating. 

Rape may also be used as a soiling crop. If fed to 
milch cows, it should be just after milking, as otherwise 
it may taint the milk. At the Michigan Experiment 
Station rape was preserved in a silo and the product was 
readily eaten by cows. 

708. Carrying capacity of rape pastures. — Under fa- 
vorable conditions rape is ready to pasture in 8 to 10 weeks 
after seeding. On this account it is often sown as a catch 
crop. 

At the Ontario Agricultural College in 1890, 54 acres of 
rape were fed upon by 537 sheep and lambs and 18 head of 
steers for 59 days, and several acres were left unconsumed. 
In 1891, 666 lambs fed on 40 acres for over 2 months. 



592 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

Craig states that an acre of good rape will carry 30 hogs 
for 2 months. 

709. Yields. — Yields of rape range from 5 to 30 tons 
an acre green weight. The average yield on the experi- 
mental plots at Guelph, Ontario, for 6 years was 20.1 
tons and the maximum 27.7 tons. Yields to the acre 
reported from other experiment stations are : New Hamp- 
shire, 50 tons ; Wyoming, 14.6 tons ; North Dakota, 5.5, 
6.5, 14 and 5.2 tons for four years in succession ; Florida, 
16.59 tons ; Michigan, 6.46 tons. 

The average yield of a good field of rape is probably 
about 10 tons an acre. 

710. Insects. — Rape, like all plants of the cabbage 
tribe, is much subject to the attacks of numerous insects, 
and this factor tends to restrict its culture as a field crop 
to regions where the growing season is cool. The most 
troublesome insects are the Cabbage Aphis (Aphis bras- 
sicce), a small plant louse which often swarms on the 
plants in enormous numbers ; the Cabbage-worm {Pieris 
rapce), a smooth, green caterpillar that feeds on the leaves ; 
the Harlequin Plant-bug (Murgantia histrionica) , sl hand- 
some insect which sometimes attacks the leaves in enor- 
mous numbers and the Root-maggot (Anthomyia brassicce), 
a small white grub which feeds on the roots near the sur- 
face. 

KALE (Brassica oleracea) 

711. The varieties of kale used for forage are the coarse- 
growing sorts, especially the one known as Thousand- 
headed. This is much grown in England and France as 
a soiling crop, and has been found admirably adapted to 
the north Pacific Coast, in Ontario, and in New England. 
The plants grow to a height of 3 to 5 feet or more and pro- 
duce larger yields of succulent forage, which can be fed 



ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 593 

from October to April in regions where the winters are 
mild. Kale is usually fed to dairy cows, but to avoid 
tainting the milk, it should be fed just after milking, 25 
to 40 pounds a day, in two feeds. The kale may be fed 
fresh or allowed to wilt before feeding, but it should not 
be cut more than four or five days before it is fed, nor 
should it be thrown in heaps, as it heats readily. Kale 
should not be fed while it is frozen. On the approach of 
freezing weather a supply sufficient to last several days 
should be placed in the barn. 

Kale may be grown by planting the seeds in hills 
2.5 to 3 feet apart and then thinning to one plant. It is 
better, however, to start the plants in a seed bed and then 
transplant. The seed should be sown as early in spring 
as conditions will permit, and the young plants trans- 
planted to well-prepared land when 3 or 4 inches high. 
The transplanting is commonly done by dropping the 
plants into furrows at the proper distance apart so that 
the next furrow will cover the roots, but not the tops. 
The land is then rolled and any " misses " are later planted 
by hand. 

Kale does not seed until the second year, and on the 
Pacific Coast the plants survive the winter. As the plants 
vary considerably, it is advisable to select the best plants. 
At the Puyallup, Washington, Substation, a yield of 1800 
pounds of seed to an acre is reported. 

Thousand-headed kale produced an average yield for 
6 years of 19.1 tons an acre at the Ontario Agricultural 
College. At the New Hampshire Experiment Station 
a yield of 47,432 pounds to the acre was secured. 

Another variety of kale called marrow cabbage, 
which has thick fleshy stems, has given very promising 
results in western Washington. This variety is differ- 

2q 



594 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

ent from marrow-stem kale, also used as a forage 
plant. 

712. Diseases. — Kale, like other plants of the cabbage 

Varieties of Rape, Cabbage, Kale, etc., as Farm Crops 



Varieties 



Sutton Earliest Drumhead 
cabbage 

Thousand-headed kale . 

Sutton Giant Drumhead cab- 
bage 

Sutton Earliest Sheepfold cab- 
bage 

Large-seeded Umbrella rape . 

Sutton Best of All Savoy cab- 
bage 

Large-seeded Common rape 

Dwarf Victoria rape .... 

Marrow collards 

Buckbee Wonderful Dwarf 
Bonanza rape 

Dwarf Essex rape .... 

Large-seeded White-flowering 
rape 

Purple-sprouting boroccoli 

Hardy Curled kale .... 

Jersey kale 

Cabbage-leafed rape . . . 

Brussels sprouts 

New Chinese mustard 

Bloomsdale large-leafed mustard 

White mustard 

German rape 



Height 


Green 

TO THE 




Average, 




1910 


6 yr., 
1905- 
1910 


1910 


7ns. 


Ins. 


Tons 


20 


18 


25.2 


32 


35 


21.3 


21 


21 


21.2 


19 


18 


21.8 


32 


28 


25.7 


19 


18 


20.5 


30 


30 


20.4 


25 


29 


19.6 


28 


24 


19.2 


32 


30 


23.8 


24 


29 


20.1 


29 


30 


22.3 


30 


31 


19.0 


28 


28 


20.0 


34 


33 


19.5 


32 


32 


16.9 


25 


25 


16.0 


50 


60 


12.8 


50 


58 


12.4 


46 


55 


12.4 


11 


17 


9.6 



Average, 
6 yr., 
1905- 
1910 



Tons 

27.3 
25.4 

25.2 

24.1 
22.7 

22.1 
21.8 
21.5 
21.5 

21.4 
21.2 

20.8 
20.5 
20.4 
20.2 
19.6 
16.3 
14.8 
14.5 
13.5 
5.9 



ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 595 

family, may be attacked by various diseases. One of 
the most common is club-root, or " finger and toe disease," 
caused by the myxomycete Plasmodiophora brassicce. 
This causes the roots to become greatly enlarged and mal- 
formed. There is no direct remedy, and the organism 
causing the disease will live in the ground several years. 
Rotation is the best means of control. 

713. Yields of kale, cabbage and other brassicaceous 
plants. — The relative yields of various brassicaceous 
plants other than root crops is well shown by the long- 
continued tests at the Ontario Agricultural College. In 
these trials the different varieties of cabbage taken to- 
gether outyield any of the related groups ; namely, rape, 
kale, collards and similar plants. 

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE ( Heliauthus tuhevosus) 

714. The Jerusalem artichoke or topinambur is a native 
of America from Ontario to Saskatchewan south to Georgia 
and Arkansas. It was cultivated by the Indians for the 
edible tubers, and was early introduced into Europe. 
The artichoke is a sunflower with medium-sized heads, 
subcordate petioled leaves, and clustered tuberous roots. 
There are several varieties, distinguished by the color of 
the tubers, — white, yellow or red, — and by the shape of 
the leaves, either narrow or broad. 

Artichokes seem to be less cultivated now than formerly, 
and are apparently relatively more important in Europe 
than in America. They are cultivated much after the 
manner of potatoes, the tubers being planted in hills 20 
inches apart each way, or better, in rows 24 to 30 inches 
wide. The crop is permitted to grow until the plants are 
killed by frost. Artichokes are valuable as forage chiefly 
for hogs, and they are usually harvested by turning these 



596 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

animals in the field. The tubers keep in the ground all 
winter and usually enough of them are left by the hogs 
to fnake a new crop. Indeed, it is this weedy propensity 
of the artichoke that has militated much against its 
culture. 

The yield of tubers to the acre ranges from 4 to 18 tons, 
but in western Washington records of 20 to 39 tons to the 
acre are reported. 

CHUFA (Cyperus esculentus) 

715. The chufa is apparently native in the subtropical 
regions of both hemispheres, but its culture originated in 
Mediterranean countries. It is a sedge-like plant with 
creeping rootstocks which produce small sweet tubers 
rarely over 1 inch in diameter. The tubers are eaten as 
human food or pastured to hogs. 

' The plant is propagated by the tubers, which are planted 
in spring in rows wide enough to be cultivated, placing 
the tubers about one foot apart in the rows. In the South 
they are sometimes planted in corn at the last cultivation. 
One peck of tubers is needed to plant an acre, and it is better 
to soak them a few days before planting. 

Chufas are grown mainly in the Southern States. Prac- 
tically all the " seed " is produced in Georgia, the product 
in 1909 of 481 acres being 12,531 bushels. The yields 
seem to vary greatly. At the Arkansas Experiment Sta- 
tion the product was estimated at 6992 pounds to the acre. 
At the Alabama Experiment Station the number of 
tubers in 8 hills were counted and found to average 568. 
The yield to the acre was determined as 172 bushels green 
or 115,24 bushels dry. At the Ontario Agricultural Col- 
lege the yield averaged 22.8 bushels an acre. One bushel 
weighs 44 pounds. 



BOOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 597 

At the Arkansas Experiment Station one-fourth acre 
of chufas pastured by hogs was estimated to produce 
138 pounds of pork. At the Alabama Experiment 
Station it was calculated that an acre of chufas pastured 
to hogs produced 307 pounds of pork. 

CASSAVA (Manihot utilissima) 

716. Cassava is a tropical plant probably native to 
Brazil. It is now cultivated in all parts of the tropics, 
mainly as a source of human food, and also as a basis for 
the manufacture of tapioca. Its culture is probably more 
important in Java than in any other country. 

Cassava is a bushy, branched, woody-based herb com- 
monly growing 4 to 10 feet in height. The leaves are 
palmately divided into 3 to 11 divisions which are oblan- 
ceolate, or rarely lanceolate, and from 5 to 10 inches long 
and about 1 inch wide. The flowers are polygamo-dioe- 
cious, that is, some are staminate, some pistillate and some 
perfect. Usually flowers on one plant are primarily pis- 
tillate and those on another primarily staminate. The 
fleshy, starchy roots grow in clusters of 4 to 8 to each plant, 
the largest being 3 to 4 feet in length and 2 to 3 inches 
in diameter, a single cluster weighing usually 5 to 10 
pounds, but sometimes 20 to 30 pounds. 

Cassava is adapted in the United States only to Florida 
and the southern portions of Georgia, Alabama, Missis- 
sippi, Louisiana, the coastal region of Texas and California. 
The plant requires abundant moisture during the growing 
season and preferably a sandy loam soil. The plants will 
grow well in clay soils, but the cost of harvesting the roots 
then becomes excessive. 

The varieties of cassava are very numerous, but are 
usually put into two groups, namely, the sweet and the 



598 FOB AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 

bitter, the latter containing more or less hydrocyanic 
acid in the roots and therefore poisonous. Under certain 
favorable conditions of soil and climate it seems that all 
cassavas tend to become sweet, and under unfavorable 
conditions there is a tendency for them to become bitter. 

Cassava has been cultivated to a slight extent in Florida 
for at least 50 years, primarily for the manufacture of 
starch. It has also been employed to some extent to fur- 
nish root forage for live stock. Cultivated in this way, 
however, it is probably not as advantageous on the whole 
as sweet potatoes. 

Cassava is commonly propagated by means of portions 
of the roots or portions of the stems which are stored in 
a dry place during winter and protected against damage 
by frost. The plants can also be propagated by means 
of seeds, but this results in great variation and besides the 
plants will not make as large growth in the same time. 
Seed canes are usually cut in pieces 4 to 8 inches in length 
and planted after all danger of frost is over. They are 
usually planted 4 feet apart each way. 

One great trouble with cassava is the difficulty, at 
least under Florida conditions, of securing a perfect 
stand, as many of the canes rot or otherwise become weak- 
ened and do not produce plants. On this account the 
yields are verj^ variable, the maximum being perhaps 
20 tons to the acre. 

The culture of cassava has never been very important 
in the United States and has greatly decreased in the 
last 20 years. 



INDEX 



Achillea millefolium, 577. 
Adulteration of seeds, 71. 
Adzuki, 554. 
Aftermath, 4, 102. 
Age of seeds, 72. 
Aggressiveness in plants, 13. 
Agropyron occidentale, 221. 

repens, 353. 

tenerum, 219. 
Agrostis alba, 170. 

capillaris, 170. 

dispar, 170. 

vulgaris, 170. 
Aleppo-grass, 244. 
Alfalfa, 305-359. 

agricultural history, 305. 

Arabian, 314. 

botanical varieties, 313. 

breeding methods, 352. 

care of field, 340. 

characteristics of, 319. 

clipping, 330. 

cold relations, 307. 

crown-gall, 356. 

cultivated varieties, 313. 

cuttings, 336. 

diseases, 356. 

distribution of, 312. 

dodder, 354. 

Grimm, 315. 

heat relations, 307. 

humidity relations, 310. 

importance of varieties, 316. 

improvement, 351. 

influence of source of seed, 317. 

insects, 358. 

irrigation, 337-338. 

life period, 320. 

love-vine, 354. 

meal, 346. 

methods of seeding, 329, 



mixtures, 342. 

number of cuttings, 336. 

nurse crops, 329. 

origin of name, 306. 

pasturing, 344. 

Peruvian, 314. 

pollination, 348. 

proportion of leaves, stems and 

roots, 325. 
quality of different cuttings, 336. 
rate of seeding, 327. 
regional strains, 318. 
root-rot, 356. 
roots, 320. 
rootstocks, 323. 
rotations, 343. 
row cultivation, 341. 
seed, 349. 
seed-bed, 326. 
seed production, 346. 
seeding, 327-329. 
seedlings, 323. 
shoots, 324. 
Siberian, 315. 
Sickle, 315. 
silage, 345. 

soil moisture relations, 322. 
soil relations, 310. 
soiling, 345. 
statistics, 118-119. 
time of cutting, 333. 
time of seeding, 328. 
time to apply irrigation, 337. 
Turkestan, 314. 
Variegated, 315. 
viability of seed, 350. 
weeds, 352. 
winter irrigation, 338. 
winter-killing, 331. 
Yellow-flowered, 315. 
yellows, 358. 



599 



600 



INDEX 



Alfalfa, — Continued. 

yields in relation to water supply, 
339. 
Alopecurus pratensis, 227. 
Alsike, 405. 
Alsike clover, 405-410. 

adaptations, 406. 

agricultural history, 406. 

botany, 405. 

characteristics, 406. 

culture, 408. 

hay, 408. 

importance, 407. 

pasturage value, 410. 

regional strains, 407. 

seed, 409. 

seed-production, 409. 
Amerosporium economicum, 511. 
Analyses, chemical, 56-59. 
Andropogon halepensis, 244. 

sorghum, 260-284. 
Anthomyia brassicse, 592. 
Anthoxanthum odoratum, 229. 
Anthyllis vulneraria, 566. 
Aphis brassicse, 592. 
Aphis, sorghum, 278. 
Arachis hypogsea, 546. 
Arctic grass, 256. 
Army worm, 278. 
Arrhenatherum avenaceum, 189. 

elatius, 189. 
Artichoke, Jerusalem, 595. 
Ash, 56. 

Asparagus-bean, 494. 
Astragalus falcatus, 569. 
Atriplex hastata, 582. 

semibaccata, 581. 
Australian brome-grass, 256. 
Australian oats, 256. 
Australian redtop, 258. 
Australian saltbush, 581. 
Autographa gamma calif ornica, 360. 
Avena elatior, 189. 
Axonopus compressus, 250. 

Bacillus sorghi, 277. 
tumefaciens, 356. 
Bahama-grass, 237. 
Bajri, 301. 



Bareet-grass, 44. 
Bean, Adzuki, 554. 

Asparagus, 494. 

Chinese, 545. 

Horse, 479, 550. 

Hyacinth, 555. 

Jack, 549. 

Knife, 550. 

Lyon, 545. 

Moth, 553. 

Mung, 551. 

Overlook, 550. 

Pearson, 550. 

Soy, 513-536. 

Sword, 550. 

Velvet, 544. 

Yokohama, 546. 
Bee clover, 417. 
Beggarweed, 548. 
Bermuda-grass, 237-244, 353. 

adaptations, 239. 

agricultural history, 238. 

botany, 237. 

characteristics, 237. 

culture, 241. 

feeding value, 243. 

importance, 240. 

rootstocks, 242. 

seed-production, 243. 

variability, 240. 

yields of hay, 242. 
Berseem, 435. 
Bird's-foot trefoil, 568. 
Bird vetch, 481. 
Black medick, 435. 
Blight, sorghum, 277. 
Blissus leucopterus, 278. 
Bloating, 112. 
Blue bunch-grass, 225. 
Blue-grass, Canada, 163-166. 

adaptations, 165. 

botany, 163. 

culture, 164. 

importance, 166. 

seed, 164. 
Blue-grass, English, 204. 
Blue-grass, Kentucky, 154-163. 

adaptations, 156. 

botany, 154. 



INDEX 



601 



Blue-grass, Kentucky, — Continued. 

characteristics, 157. 

culture, 158. 

fertilizers, 159. 

hybrids, 163. 

importance, 157. 

seed, 162. 

seed-production, 161. 

yields of hay, 160. 
Blue-grass, Texas, 166-167. 
Blue-joint, 221. 
Blue-stem, 221. 

Colorado, 221. 
Bokhara clover, 417. 
Bonavist, 555. 
Brassicaceous plants, 595. 
Brassica napus, 589. 

oleracea, 592. 
Breeding, alfalfa, 351-353. 

red clover, 403. 

sorghum, 278. 

soybeans, 536. 

timothy, 149, 150. 
Broad-bean, 479. 
Broccoli, 594. 
Brome, Australian, 256. 

Austrian, 195. 

Awnless, 195. 

Erect, 233. 

Hungarian, 195. 

Meadow, 233. 

Russian, 195. 

Schrader's, 256. 

Smooth, 195. 

Upright, 233. 
Brome-grass, 195-203. 

adaptations, 197. 

agricultural history, 196. 

botany, 195. 

common names, 195. 

description, 195. 

fertilizers for, 199. 

hay, 199. 

mixtures, 202. 

pasture value, 202. 

rate of seeding, 198. 

roots, 197. 

seed, 201. 

seeding methods, 197-198. 



seed-production, 201. 

time of cutting, 198. 

treatment of fields, 200. 

variability, 202. 
Bromus erectus, 233. 

inermis, 196. 

Reinianni, 196. 

secalinus, 299. 

unioloides, 256, 257. 
Broom-corn millet, 285, 295. 
Brown hay, 2, 38. 
Browsing, 4. 
Bruchus pisorum, 452. 
Brucophagus funebris, 402. 
Brussels' sprouts, 594. 
Buckhorn, 579. 
Bur clover, 437-439. 
Burnet, 578. 
Button clover, 437. 

Cabbage, 594-595, 
Cabbage aphis, 592. 

worm, 592. 
Calorie, 62. 
Calorimeter, 62. 
Canada blue-grass, 163-166. 
Canary-grass, 300. 
Canary-grass, reed, 230-231. 

agricultural history, 230. 

botany, 230. 

characteristics, 230. 
Canavalia ensiformis, 549. 

gladiata, 550. 
Capacity, carrj'ing, 108. 
Carpet-grass, 250. 
Carrying capacity, 108. 
Cassava, 597. 
Cat-tail millet, 286, 301. 
Catjang, 494. 
Cat's-tail, meadow, 124. 
Cercospora cruenta, 511. 
Cereals for hay, 298. 
Cheat, 299. 
Chemical analyses, 56. 
Chemical composition, relation to 
fertihty, 56. 

relation to stage of maturity, 
58, 381. 
Chess, 299. 



602 



INDEX 



Chickasaw pea, 551. 
Chickling vetch, 454. 
Chick-pea, 453. 
Chinch-bug, 278, 294. 
Chinese velvet bean, 545. 
Chufa, 596. 
Cicer arientinum, 453. 
Clover, Alsike, 405-410. 

anthracnose, 398. 

Bee, 417. 

black spot, 398. 

Bokhara, 417. 

Bur, 437-439. 

chalcis, 402. 

Crimson, 426-434. 

Dutch, 411. 

flower-midge, 402. 

French, 426. 

German, 426. 

hay-worm, 403. 

Honey, 417. 

Hungarian, 410. 

Incarnate, 426. 

Italian, 426. 

Japan, 539. 

Ladino, 416. 

leaf-spot, 398. 

leaf-weevil, 402. 

Mexican, 571. 

Orel, 367. 

Persian, 434. 

Red, 361-404. 

root-borer, 401. 

Russian, 367. 

rust, 398. 

Scarlet, 426. 

sickness, 398-401. 

Sour, 425. 

Sweet, 417-425. 

White, 411-417. 
Club-root, 595. 

Coarse forage, statistics, 118, 119. 
Cock's-foot, 176. 
Coffee-bean, 453. 
Collards, 594, 595. 
Colletotrichum cereale, 398. 

trifolii, 358, 398, 404. 
Color of seeds, 72. 
Colorado-grass, 297. 



Common vetch, 457-467. 

adaptations, 458. 

agricultural history, 457. 

botany, 457. 

culture, 459. 

feeding value, 463. 

fertilizers, 464. 

harvesting for hay, 462. 

importance, 458. 

lime, 465. 

pasturing, 462. 

rate of seeding, 461. 

rotations, 463. 

seed, 466. 

seed-production, 465, 466. 

silage, 465. 

time of sowing, 460. 

varieties, 458. 
Concentrates, 4. 
Coracan, 296. 

Corn, comparison with root crops, 
588. 

statistics, 118, 119. 

worm, 278. 
Cost of seeding, 52. 
Cowpea, 491-512. 

adaptations, 492. 

agricultural history, 491. 

Black, 498. 

Blackeye, 498. 

Botanical origin, 491. 

Brabham, 497. 

Clay, 497. 

Congo, 498. 

correlations, 496. 

cuttings, number of, 501. 

disease resistance, 511. 

Early Buff, 498. 

feeding value, 503. 

Groit, 497. 

hay, 501. 

hay yields, 502. 

importance, 493. 

inoculation, 500. 

insect enemies, 511. 

Iron, 497. 

life period, 494. 

mixtures, 504-505. 

New Era, 497. 



INDEX 



603 



Cowpea, — Continued. 

pods, 495. 

pollination, 506. 

Red Ripper, 498. 

roots, 510. 

seeding, method, 498. 

seeding, rate, 498. 

seeding, time, 499. 

seed-production, 506. 

seeds, 495, 508. 

seeds, proportion to hulls, 508. 

Shinney, 497. 

Speckled, 497. 

Unknown, 497. 

uses, 493. 

varietal distinctions, 494. 

varieties, 496. 

viability of seed, 509. 

Whippoorwill, 496. 

Wonderful, 497. 

yield of seed, 507. 
Crab-grass, 258, 353. 
Crested dogstail, 235, 236. 
Crimson clover, 426-434. 

adaptations, 427. 

agricultural history, 426. 

botany, 426. 

cutting for hay, 431. 

description, 427. 

importance, 428. 

method of sowing, 430. 

other uses, 432. 

seed, 433. 

seeding, 429. 

seed-production, 433. 

time of sowing, 430. 

varieties, 429. 

yields, 432, 
Crop-grass, 258. 

Crops, classification in statistical 
returns, 113. 

nurse, 90. 
Crown-gall, 356. 
Crude fiber, 56. 
Crude protein, 56. 
Cumarin, 418. 
Curing hay, 24. 

completion of, 28. 

ease of, 53. 



special devices for, 26. 
Cuscuta arvensis, 354. 

epithymum, 354. 

indecora, 354. 

planiflora, 354. 
Cutting, time of, 22. 

alfalfa, 333. 

alsike clover, 408. 

brome-grass, 198. 

Canada blue-grass, 165. 

chess (or cheat), 299. 

common vetch, 462. 

cowpea, 501, 

crimson clover, 431. 

Florida beggarweed, 549. 

Guinea-grass, 256. 

hairy vetch, 472. 

lespedeza, 543. 

meadow fescue, 207. 

meadow foxtail, 228. 

millet, 291. 

orchard-grass, 181. 

Para-grass, 254. 

peas, 447. 

red clover, 380. 

sorghum, 274, 275. 

soybeans, 527. 

sweet clover, 421. 

tall oat grass, 192. 

timothy, 136. 
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, 557. 
Cynodon dactylon, 237-244. 
Cynosurus cristatus, 235. 
Cyperus esculentus, 596. 

Dactylis altaica, 177. 

aschersoniana, 177. 

glomerata, 176. 
Dakota vetch, 439. 
Dasyneura leguminicola, 402. 
Depth of seeding or planting, 88. 
Desmodium tortuosum, 548. 
Digestible nutrients, 59-62. 
Digitaria sanguinalis, 258. 
Diplosis sorghicola, 277. 
Disease resistance, cowpeas, 511. 

red clover, 404. 

timothy, 148. 
Diseases, alfalfa, 356. 



604 



INDEX 



Diseases, — Continued. 

cowpea, 511. 

kale, 594. 

meadow fescue, 209. 

millet, 294. 

red clover, 398. 

slender wheat-grass, 220. 

sorghum, 277. 

soybean, 536. 

timothy, 146. 
Dogstail, crested, 235. 
Dogs'-tooth grass, 237. 
Dolichos lablab, 555. 
Doob, 237. 
Durra, 273. 

Sudan, 272. 

Earth nut, 546. 
Echinochloa colona, 296. 

crus-galli, 286. 

frumentacea, 286. 
Egyptian pea, 453. 
Eleusine coracana, 286, 296. 

indica, 297. 
Energy value, 62. 
English blue-grass, 204. 
English rye-grass, 211. 
Ensilage, 39. 
Erect brome, 233. 
Ervil, 478. 
Erysiphe polygoni, 398. 

trifolii, 358. 
Esparcet, 559. 
Esparsette, 559. 
Ether extract, 56. 
Euchlsena mexicana, 303. 
Eurymus eurytheme, 360. 
Evergreen grass, 189. 
Evergreen millet, 244. 
Experimental results in seeding, 89. 
Extravaginal shoots, 15. 

Fagiolo, 492. 

False guinea-grass, 244. 

False oat-grass, 189. 

Fat, 56. 

Feed, definition of, 1. 

Feeding experiments, 54, 547. 

Feeding values, 54. 



Feeding values, Bermuda-grass, 243. 

common vetch, 463. 

comparison of, 64. 

cowpea, 503. 

hairy vetch, 473. 

millet, 292. 

orchard-grass, 187. 

peanuts, 547. 

red clover, 383, 384. 

root crops, 585, 586. 

soybean, 531. 

timothy, 144. 
Fenugreek, 486. 
Fermentation of silage, 40. 
Fertilizers, effect on chemical com- 
position, 56. 

for brome-grass, 199. 

for hay crops, 97-102. 

for Kentucky blue-grass, 159. 

for red clover, 374-376. 

for soybeans, 528. 

for timothy, 133. 

for vetch, 464. 
Fescue, Arizona, 225. 

Chewing' s, 227. 

Fine-leaved, 224. 

Hard, 224. 

Meadow {see Meadow fescue), 
204-209. 

Red, 226. 

Reed, 210. 

Sheep's, 223-226. 

Tall, 210. 

Various-leaved, 224. 
Festuca arundinacea, 210. 

dumetorum, 227. 

duriuscula, 224. 

elatior, 204, 210, 211. 

gigantea, 211. 

heterophylla, 224. 

ovina, 223-226. 

pratensis, 204. 

rubra, 225. 

tenuifoha, 224. 
Feterita, 272. 
Fiber, 56. 
Field bean, 479. 
Field pea, 441-453. 
Finger and toe disease, 595. 



INDEX 



605 



Finger-millet, 286. 

Flat pea, 565. 

Florida beggarweed, 548. 

velvet bean, 544. 
Fodder, definition, 2. 

loss of, in field, 32. 
Forage crops, adaptation to con- 
ditions, 48. 

adapted for ensiling, 42. 

botany of, 11. 

choice of, 47-66. 

civilization and, 7. 

comparative knowledge of, 5. 

definition, 1. 

in Europe and America, 9. 

preservation of, 21-46. 

special purposes for which grown, 
48. 

statistics of, 113-122. 

yielding capacity, 49. 
Fowl meadow-grass, 167. 
Foxtail, meadow, 227. 
Foxtail millet, adaptations, 287. 

agricultural history, 286. 

culture, 290. 

diseases, 294. 

feeding value, 292. 

German, 289. 

Golden Wonder, 289. 

hay, 291. 

Hungarian, 290. 

importance, 288. 

injuriousness, 293. 

insects, 294. 

Kursk, 290. 

Mammoth, 289. 

seed, 293. 

seeding, 291. 

seed-production, 293. 

Siberian, 290. 

silage, 292. 

varieties, 288. 
French rye-grass, 189. 
Fromental, 189. 
Fumigation of seeds, 512. 
Fungous diseases in seeds, 75. 
Furze, 570. 
Fusarium, 511, 536. 

roseum, 356. 



Galega officinalis, 568. 

Galygumber, 417. 

Garawi, 279. 

Garbanzo, 453. 

Genuineness of seed, 67. 

Georgeson, 42. 

German millet, see Foxtail millet. 

Germination of seed, 70. 

Gipsy pea, 453. 

Gloeosporium trifolii, 398. 

Glumes, 14. 

Glycine soja, 515. 

ussuriensis, 515. 
Goat's rue, 568. 
Golden crown-grass, 251. 
Goober, 546. 
Gorse, 570. 
Grain cut green, statistics of, 118, 

119. 
Gram, Madras, 453. 
Grass, definition of, 4. 
Grasses, characteristics, 14. 

wild, salt or prairie, statistics, 
118, 119. 

other tame and cultivated, 119, 
120. 
Grass-pea, 454. 
Ground nut, 546. 
Guar, 557. 

Guaranteed seeds, 75. 
Guinea-grass, 254. 

false, 244. 

Hackfrlichte, 583. 
Hairy vetch, 467-477. 

advantages, 474. 

botany, 468. 

climatic adaptations, 469. 

depth of seeding, 471. 

disadvantages, 474. 

feeding value, 473. 

harvesting for hay, 472. 

inoculation, 471. 

pollination, 472. 

rate of seeding, 469. 

rotations, 473. 

seed-production, 474-475. 

seeds, 476. 

soil preferences, 469. 



606 



INDEX 



Hairy vetch, — Continued. 

sources of seed, 475. 

time of seeding, 470. 

uses, 471. 
Hard seeds, 76. 
Hariali, 237. 

Harlequin plant-bug, 592. 
Harvesting for hay, ease of, 53. 

time of, 53. 
Hawaiian redtop, 258. 
Hay, alfalfa, 333. 

alsike clover, 408. 

brome, 199. 

brown, 2, 38. 

cereals for, 298. 

common vetch, 462. 

cowpea, 501. 

crimson clover, 431-432. 

curing, 24. 

definition, 2. 

field pea, 447. 

Florida beggarweed, 549. 

hairy vetch, 472. 

lespedeza, 542. 

losses in field, 32. 

making, 23-27. 

meadow fescue, 207. 

millet, 291. 

orchard-grass, 181. 

perennial rye-grass, 213. 

red clover, 380-382. 

shrinkage, 29. 

sorghum, 275. 

soybeans, 527. 

stacks, 36. 

statistics, 37, 117-120. 

Sudan-grass, 281. 

sweet clover, 421. 

tall oat-grass, 192. 

timothy, 136. 
Haymaking in dry weather, 23. 

under humid conditions, 24. 
Hay plants, comparison of 

Europe and America, 10. 
Hedysarium coronarium, 562. 
Helianthus annuus, 574. 

tuberosus, 595. 
Herd-grass, 123. 
Heterodera radicicola, 511, 536. 



in 



Hoe crops, 583. 
Hog millet, 285. 
Holcus lanatus, 232. 
Homalocenchrus hexandrus, 44. 
Honey clover, 417. 
Hordeum jubatum, 353. 

murinum, 354. 
Horse-bean, 479, 550. 
Hosackia americana, 439. 
Hoven, 112. 
Hungarian grass, 290. 
Hungarian millet, 290. 
Hyacinth bean, 555. 
Hybrids, Kentucky blue-grass, 163. 

meadow fescue, 209. 

perennial rye-grass, 209. 

Texas blue-grass, 167. 
Hylastinus obscurus, 401. 
Hypsopygia costalis, 403. 

Idaho pea, 453. 
Inocuhition, natural, 17. 

artificial, 18. 
Insects, injurious to 

alfalfa, 358. 

cowpea, 511. 

millet, 294. 

mung bean, 552. 

pea, 452. 

rape, 592. 

red clover, 401. 

sorghum, 277. 

soybeans, 536. 

timothy, 146. 
Intravaginal shoots, 15. 
Irrigation 

with alfalfa, 51, 337, 340. 

with alsike clover, 406. 

with berseem, 435. 

with blue-grass, 161. 

with brome-grass, 51. 

with Guinea-grass, 255. 

with Italian rye-grass, 51, 211. 

with meadow foxtail, 228. 

with orchard-grass, 51. 

with peas, 449. 

with red clover, 376. 

with reed canary-grass, 231. 

with sainfoin, 561. 



INDEX 



607 



Irrigation, — Continued. 

with Shaftal clover, 435. 

with suUa, 562, 563. 

with tall oat-grass, 190. 

with timothy, 51, 134. 

with Western wheat-grass, 221. 
Italian millet, see foxtail millet. 
Italian rye-grass, 215-219. 

adaptations, 216. 

agricultural historj', 215. 

botany, 215. 

characteristics, 215. 

culture, 216. 

hay yields, 217. 

irrigation, 216. 

seed, 218. 

seed-production, 218. 

Jack bean, 549. 
Japan clover, 539, 543. 

adaptations, 541. 

agricultural history, 540. 

culture, 541. 

description, 539. 

hay, 542. 

pasturage value, 542. 

seed-production, 543. 
Japanese millet, 286, 294. 
Japanese sugar cane, 247-249. 

adaptations, 247. 

characteristics, 247. 

culture, 248. 

history, 247. 

planting, 248. 

seed-cane, 249. 

utilization, 248. 

yields, 249. 
Jerusalem artichoke, 595. 
Johnson-grass, 244, 247. 

adaptations, 245. 

agricultural history, 244. 

botany, 244. 

poisonous qualities, 246. 

utilization, 245. 

Kafir corn, 271. 
Kale, 592, 594. 
diseases, 594. 
Kentucky blue-grass, 154, 163. 



Kidney vetch, 566. 
Knife bean, 550. 
Kudzu, 563. 
Kursk millet, 290. 

Laria pisorum, 452. 
Lathyrus cicera, 484. 

ochrus, 484. 

sativus, 454. 

silvestris, 565. 

tingitanus, 482. 
Legumes, definition, 15. 

dependence on root nodules, 19. 
Lemma, 14. 
Lespedeza, 539. 
Lespedeza striata, 539. 
Ligule, 14. 

Lime, effects on Kentucky blue- 
grass, 159. 

effects on red clover, 376. 

effects on soybeans, 529. 

effects on timothy, 134. 

effects on vetch, 465. 
Local seed, superiority of, 69. 
Lodicule, 14. 
Lolium multiflorum, 211, 214, 215. 

perenne, 211. 

temulentum, 211. 
Loss of hay or fodder in the field, 

32. 
Loss of substance in growing plants, 

34. 
Lotus an:iericanus, 439. 

corniculatus, 568. 

tetragonolobus, 489. 

uKginosus, 569. 
Lucern, see Alfalfa. 

sand, 315. 
Lupines, 487. 
Lupinus, 487. 
Lyon bean, 545. 

Macrosporium sarcinseforme, 358. 
Manihot utilissima, 597. 
Market demands, 53. 
Maturity of plants in relation to 

chemical composition, 58. 
Meadow, definition of, 4. 
Meadow brome, 233. 



608 



INDEX 



Meadow fescue, 204-209. 

adaptations, 205. 

agricultural history, 204. 

botany, 204. 

characteristics, 205. 

hay, 207. 

hybrids, 209. 

importance, 206. 

pasture value, 209. 

pests, 209. 

seed, 208. 

seeding, 206. 

seed-production, 207. 
Meadow foxtail, 227-229. 

adaptations, 228. 

characteristics, 227. 

culture, 228. 

seed, 228. 
Meadow-grass, Fowl, 167. 

Rough-stalked, 169. 

Wood, 170. 
Meadow mixtures, 92. 
Meadow oat-grass, 189. 
Meadow soft-grass, 232. 
Meadows, composition of mix- 
tures, 95. 

fertilizers for, 97-102. 

pasturing of, 108. 

reseeding old, 96. 

scarifying old, 96. 

topdressing, 102. 

treatment of, 96. 
Meadows and pastures, 92-112. 
Means-grass, 244. 
Medicago arabica, 437. 

falcata, 313. 

hispida, 437. 

lupulina, 435. 

orbicularis, 437. 

sativa, 305-360. 

scutellata, 437. 
Medick, see Alfalfa. 
Medick, Black, 435. 
Meibomia tortuosa, 548. 
Melanoplus Vjivittatus, 359. 

differentialis, 359. 
Mehlot, Official, 424. 

Siberian, 417. 

Sweet, 417. 



White, 417, 

Yellow, 424. 
Melilotus alba, 417. 

altissima, 424. 

ccerulea, 424. 

gracilis, 424. 

indica, 425. 

officinalis, 424. 

parviflora, 425. 

speciosa, 424. 
Mesquite, 232. 
Mexican clover, 571. 
Midge, sorghum, 277. 
Mildew, Downy, 398. 

Powdery, 398. 
Millet, 285-298. 

Broom-corn, 285, 295, 298. 

Finger, 286, 297. 

Foxtail, 285, 286-294. 

Hog, 285. 

Japanese barnyard, 286, 294. 

Pearl, 286, 300-303. 

Shama, 296. 

statistics, 118, 119. 

Texas, 297. 
Milo, 272. 

Mixtures, compared with single 
grasses (yields), 94. 

meadow, 92, 95. 

pasture, 105. 

with alfalfa, 94, 95, 342. 

with alsike, 95. 

with brome-grass, 94, 202. 

with cowpeas, 504, 506. 

with fowl meadow-grass, 95, 168. 

with Italian rye-grass, 95. 

with Kentucky blue-grass, 158. 

with oats, 448. 

with orchard-grass, 94, 186. 

with peas, 448. 

with rape, 590. 

with red clover, 94, 377. 

with redtop, 94, 95. 

with slender wheat-grass, 221. 

with sorghum, 275. 

with soybeans, 529. 

with Sudan-grass, 282. 

with tall oat-grass, 94, 191, 194. 

with timothy, 94, 95. 



INDEX 



609 



Mixtures, — Continued. 

with vetch, 473, 474. 

with yellow trefoil, 437. 
Moth bean, 551. 
Mung bean, 551. 
Murgantia histrionica, 592. 
Mustard, white, 594. 

Natal-grass, 258. 

Net energy values, 62. 

Nitrogen-free extract, 56. 

Nodule organism, 16. 

Nodules, root, see Root nodules. 

Nonesuch, 435. 

Number of seed in pound, 80-82. 

Nurse crops, 90. 

for alfalfa, 329. 
Nutrients, digestible, 59-62. 

Oat-grass, yellow, 234. 

false, 189. 

tall, 189-195. 

tall meadow, 189. 
Ochrus, 484. 
Onobrychis sativa, 559. 

viciaefolia, 559. 
Opuntia, 572. 
Orchard-grass, 176-188. 

adaptations to shade, 178. 

advantages and disadvantages, 
179. 

agricultural history, 177. 

botany, 176. 

climatic adaptations, 178. 

description, 176. 

feed value, 187. 

harvesting for hay, 181. 

harvesting for seed, 183. 

importance, 180. 

improvement by selection, 188. 

life history, 181. 

mixtures, 186. 

pasturage value, 187. 

pests, 188. 

seed, 184. 

seeding, 180. 

soil preferences, 178. 

source of seed, 185. 

2r 



utilization of stubble and after- 
math, 186. 

value as a soil binder, 188. 

variability, 179. 

weeds, 183. 

yields of hay, 182. 
Oregon pea, 551. 
Ornithopus sativus, 488. 
Overlook bean, 550. 
Ozonium omnivorum, 356. 

Pacey's rye-grass, 215. 
Pachymerus chine nsis, 511. 

quadrimaculatus, 511. 
Palatability of pasture grasses, 104. 
Palea, 14. 
Panicum barbinode, 253. 

maximum, 254. 

miliaceum, 285. 

texanum, 297. 
Para-grass, 253, 254. 
Paspalum, 251-253. 
Paspalum dilatatum, 251-253. 
Pasture, acreage of, improved in 
United States, 102. 

area of wild, in United States, 
102. 

definition, 4. 

grasses, palatability of, 104. 

mixtures, 105. 

plants, most important, 103. 

yield, 104-105. 
Pasture value of alfalfa, 344. 

of alsike, 410. 

of Bermuda-grass, 240-242. 

of brome-grass, 202. 

of Canada blue-grass, 166. 

of common vetch, 462. 

of crimson clover, 432. 

of hairy vetch, 472. 

of Kentucky blue-grass, 157. 

of lespedeza, 542. 

of meadow fescue, 209. 

of orchard-grass, 187. 

of peanuts, 547. 

of peas, 448. 

of red clover, 384. 

of redtop, 172. 

of sorghum, 276. 



610 



INDEX 



Pasture value, — Continued. 

of timothy, 139. 

of white clover, 413. 
Pastures, meadows and, 92-112. 

for hogs, 109-111. 

temporary, 109. 
Pasturing meadows, 108. 
Pea, 441-453. 

adaptations, 443. 

Arthur, 444. 

Blackeye Marrowfat, 444. 

botany, 441. 

Canadian Beauty, 444. 

Chickasaw, 551. 

description, 442. 

development, 447. 

Early Britain, 445. 

Flat, 565. 

Golden Vine, 444. 

hay, 447. 

history, 441. 

importance, 443. 

irrigation, 449. 

Marrowfat, 444. 

oats and, 448. 

Oregon, 551. 

pasture value, 448. 

Prussian Blue, 445. 

seed, 451. 

seeding, 446. 

seed-production, 449. 

square-pod, 489. 

varieties, 443-445. 

weevil, 452. 

Wisconsin Blue, 445. 
Peanut, 546-548. 
Pearl millet, 286, 300. 
Pearson bean, 550. 
Pencillaria, 300. 
Penicillaria, 300. 
Pennisetum glaucum, 286, 300. 
Pentosans, 56. 
Perch, 26. 
Perennial rye-grass, 211-215. 

adaptations, 212. 

agricultural history, 211. 

agricultural varieties, 212. 

botany, 211. 

characteristics, 211. 



culture, 213. 

hay yields, 213. 

importance, 212. 

name, 211. 

seed, 214. 

seed-production, 214. 
Peronospora trifoliorum, 398. 
Petit gazon, 250. 
Phalaris arundinacea, 230-232. 

canariensis, 300. 
Phaseolus aconitifolius, 553. 

angularis, 554. 

aureus, 551. 

mungo, 552. 
Phleum alpinum, 122. 

pratense, 122. 
Phytonomus murinus, 359. 

punctatus, 402. 
Pieris rapse, 592. 
Pigeon bean, 479. 
Pigeon-grass, 353. 
Pindar, 546. 
Pisum arvense, 441. 

hortense, 441. 

sativum, 441. 
Plantago lanceolata, 579. 
Plant-bug, harleqviin, 592. 
Plasmodiophora brassicse, 595. 
Plumpness of seed, 12. 
Poa arachnifera, 166. 

compressa, 163. 

flava, 167. 

nemoralis, 170. 

pratensis, 154. 

serotina, 167. 

trifiora, 167. 

trivialis, 169. 
Poisoning by Johnson grass, 246. 

by millet, 293. 

by sorghum, 276. 
Pollination, alfalfa, 348. 

cowpea, 506. 

hairy vetch, 472. 

red clover, 387. 

soybean, 533. 

white clover, 415. 
Polygonum sachalinense, 578. 
Polythrincium trifolii, 398. 
Preservation of forage, 21-46. 



INDEX 



611 



Prickly pear, 572. 

Proso, 285. 

Protein, 56. 

Pseudomoiias niedicaginis, 357. 

radicicola, 16. 
Pseudopeziza medicaginis, 357. 

trifolii, 398. 
Pueraria thunbergiana, 563. 
Pulses, 15. 

Purity of seed, 68, 72. 
Purslane, 571. 
Pussley, 571. 

Quack grass, 353. 
Quality of seed, 67. 

Rabbits, injury by, 535. 

Racehorse-grass, 244. 

Rachilla, 14. 

Ragi, 286. 

Ranges, 5. 

Rape, Dwarf Essex, 589. 

Dwarf Victoria, 589. 

importance, 589. 

insects, 592. 

mixtures, 590. 

pasturage, 591. 

rotations, 590. 

seeding, 589. 

utilization, 591. 

yields, 592. 
Rate of seeding, 85 

{also see Seeding). 
Red clover, 361-404. 

agricultural history, 361. 

botany, 361. 

breeding, 403. 

climatic relations, 364. 

clover- flower midge, 402. 

clover-hay worm, 403. 

clover-leaf weevil, 402. 

clover-seed chalcis fly, 402. 

color of seed, 393. 

composition at different stages, 
381. 

cuttings, number of, 381. 

cuttings, value of different, 384. 

disease-resistant strains, 404. 

diseases, 398. 



distribution, 362. 

effects of gypsum, 376. 

effects of lime, 376. 

fecundation, 387. 

feeding value, 383-384. 

fertilizers, 374-376. 

field treatment, 374. 

flowers, 385. 

flowers, proportion of, 397. 

green weight relation to dry 

weight, 382. 
gypsum, effects of, 376. 
harvesting seed crop, 389. 
hay yields, 382. 
inaportance, 362. 
improvement, 403. 
insects, 401. 
irrigation, 376. 
leaves, proportion of, 397. 
life period, 365. 
lime, effects of, 376. 
Mammoth, 366. 
Medium, 366. 
mixtures, 377. 

number of seeds on head, 385. 
Orel, 367. 
pasturage, 384. 
pollination, 387. 
regional strains, 367. 
root-borer, 401. 
roots, 394-397. 
roots, proportion of, 396. 
rotations, 377-378. 
Russian, 367. 
seed color, 393. 
seed yields, 390. 
seed-crop, harvesting, 389. 
seed-crop, statistics, 391. 
seeding, depth, 373. 
seeding rate, 370. 
seeding time, 369. 
seeding with a nurse-crop, 371. 
seeding without a nurse-crop, 373. 
seedlings, 371. 
seed-production, 387. 
seeds, 391-394. 
shade, effect of, 365. 
shoots, 395-396. 
shoots, proportion of, 396. 



612 



INDEX 



Red Clover, — Continued. 

sickness, 398-401. 

silage, 385. 

soil relations, 363. 

soiling, 384. 

stage to cut, 380. 

statistics of seed crop, 391. 

stems, proportion of, 396. 

straw, 391. 

varieties, 366-368. 

volunteer crops, 379. 

winter-killing, 374. 

yields of hay, 382. 

yields of seed, 390. 
Redtop, adaptations, 171. 

agricultural history, 171. 

Australian, 258. 

botany, 170. 

characteristics, 172. 

culture, 173. 

Hawaiian, 258. 

importance, 172. 

names, 170-175. 

regional strains, 173. 

seed, 175. 

seed production, 174. 

variability, 173. 

yield of hay, 174. 
Reed canary-grass, 230. 
Reed fescue, 210. 
Rescue-grass, 256. 
Reseeding old meadows, 96. 
Respiration calorimeter, 62. 
Rhizoctonia violacea, 398. 
Ribbon-grass, 230. 
Richardsonia scabra, 571. 
Robertson mixture, 43. 
Root crops, 3, 583. 

comparison of different, 586. 

comparison with corn, 588. 

comparison with sorghum, 588. 

importance, 584. 

kinds, 585. 
Root forage, statistics, 120. 
Rootknot, 511, 536. 
Root-maggot, 592. 
Root nodules, description, 16. 

forms of, 17. 

importance of, 19. 



Root-rot, 356. 

Roots, alfalfa, 320, 325. ' 

brome, 197. 

cowpea, 510. 

Kentucky blue-grass, 158. 

orchard-grass, 188. 

red clover, 394-397. 

redtop, 172. 

sainfoin, 559. 

sorghum, 263. 

sweet clover, 421. 

timothy, 142, 143. 
Rootstocks, alfalfa, 323. 

Bermuda-grass, 242. 
Rotations, with alfalfa, 343. 

with common vetch, 463. 

with hairy vetch, 473. 

with rape, 590. 

with red clover, 377. 

with soybeans, 530. 
Roughage, 3. 
Rough cock's-foot, 176. 
Roughness, see Roughage. 
Rough-stalked meadow grass, 169, 
Rowen, 4, 102. 
Rye-grass, Argentine, 215. 

BaUly's, 215. 

English, 211. 

Italian, see Italian rye-grass. 

Pacey's, 215. 

perennial, 211, 215. 

Rieffel's, 215. 

short-seeded, 215. 

Westernwolth, 215, 218. 

Saccharum officinarum, 247. 
Sachaline, 578. 
Sainfoin, 559-562. 

agricultural history, 569. 

American data, 561. 

culture, 560. 

description, 559. 

seed, 561. 

Spanish, 562. 
Sampling of seed, 75. 
Sanguisorba minor, 578. 
Schabdar, 434. 
Schrader's brome-grass, 256. 
Sclerotinia trifoliorum, 398. 



INDEX 



613 



Scotch-grass, 237. 
Seed inspection, 74. 
Seeding, adzuki, 555. 

alfalfa, 326-329. ^ 

alsike clover, 419. 

Bermuda-grass, 241. 

brome-grass, 197-198. 

bur clover, 439. 

common vetch, 459-461. 

cost of, 52. 

cowpeas, 498-500. 

crimson clover, 429. 

depth of, 88. 

experimental results, 89. 

field peas, 446. 

Florida beggarweed, 548. 

hairy vetch, 469-471. 

in practice, 83. 

Italian rye-grass, 216. 

Kentucky blue-grass, 158. 

lespedeza, 541. 

meadow fescue, 206. 

millet, 291. 

moth bean, 554. 

mung bean, 552. 

old meadows, 96. 

orchard grass, 180. 

peanuts, 547. 

perennial rye-grass, 213. 

rape, 589. 

rate of, 85. 

red clover, 369-373. 

redtop, 173. 

sainfoin, 560. 

slender wheat-grass, 219. 

sorghum, 267-268. 

soybeans, 522-523. 

Sudan-grass, 280. 

sweet clover, 419. 

tall oat-grass, 192. 

time of, 86. 

timothy, 128-132. 

velvet bean, 545. 

white clover, 413. 
Seed-production, alfalfa, 346. 

alsike clover, 409. 

Bermuda-grass, 243. 

brome-grass, 210. 

common vetch, 465. 



cowpea, 506. 
crimson clover, 433. 
hairy vetch, 474. 
Italian rye-grass, 218. 
lespedeza, 543. 
Kentucky blue-grass, 161. 
meadow fescue, 207. 
millet, foxtail, 293. 
orchard-grass, 183. 
peas, 449-451. 
perennial rye-grass, 214. 
red clover, 387. 
redtop, 174. 
soybean, 531. 
Sudan-grass, 283. 
sweet clover, 423. 
tall oat-grass, 192. 
timothy, 140. 
Seeds, actual value of, 69. 
adulteration of, 71. 
age of, 72. 
alfalfa, 349-350. 
alsike clover, 409. 
brome-grass, 201. 
Canada blue-grass, 164. 
color of, 72. 
common vetch, 466. 
cowpea, 495, 508. 
crimson clover, 433. 
fungous diseases of, 75. 
genuineness of, 67. 
guaranteed, 75. 
hairy vetch, 476. 
hard, 76. 

Italian rye-grass, 218. 
Kentucky blue-grass, 162. 
meadow fescue, 208. 
meadow foxtail, 228. 
millet, foxtail, 293. 
misbranding of, 71. 
number to pound, 80, 82. 
orchard- grass, 184. 
perennial rye-grass, 214. 
plumpness of, 72. 
production of forage crop, 83. 
purity of, 68. 
quality of, 67. 
red clover, 391-393. 
red fescue, 226. 



ei4 



INDEX 



Seed^, =^ ddyi'tmued. 

redtop, 175. 

sampling of, 75. 

sheep's fescue, 226. 

sorghum, 269. 

source of, 73. 

soybean, 534. 

standards of germination, 70, 

standards of purity, 70. 

superiority of local, 69. 

sweet clover, 424. 

tall oat-grass, 194. 

timothy, 127. 

viabiUty of, 68. 

weed, 78. 

weight of, 78-80. 

white clover, 416. 
Seeds and seeding, 67-91. 
Serradella, 488. 
Setaria italica, 285, 286. 
Shaftal, 434. 
Shama millet, 296. 
Sheep's fescue, 223-226. 

culture, 225. 

importance, 225. 

seeding, 226. 
Shrinkage of hay, 29. 
Siberian melilot, 417. 
Siberian millet, 290. 
Silage, 39. 

advantages of, 41. 

alfalfa, 345. 

crops for, 42. 

definition, 3. 

fermentation, 40-41. 

millet, 292. 

rape, 591. 

red clover, 385. 

sorghum, 275. 

soybean, 530. 

summer, 40. 

sweet clover, 422. 

vetch, 465, 471. 
Silos, 39. 
Sipha flava, 278. 
Slender wheat-grass, 219. 
Snail clover, 437. 
Soilage, see Soiling. 
Soiling, 45. 



alfalfa, 345. 

crimson clover, 432. 

definition, 3. 

penicillaria, 301, 

rape, 591. 

red clover, 384. 

sorghum, 274. 

systems, 44. 
Soja bean, see Soybean. 
Soja max, 515. 
Sorghum, 260-284. 

adaptations, 262. 

agricultural groups, 263. 

agricultural history, 261. 

agricultural varieties, 269. 

Amber, 270. 

aphis, 278. 

blight, 277. 

botany, 260. 

broadcasting, 268. 

comparison with root crops, 588. 

culture, 266. 

diseases, 277. 

Durra, 273. 

Feterita, 272. 

fodder, 274. 

Gooseneck, 271. 

hay, 275. 

head smut, 277. 

Honey, 271. 

importance, 266, 

improvement, 278, 

insects, 277. 

Kafir or Kafir Corn, 271. 

kernel smut, 277. 

legume mixtures with, 275. 

midge, 277. 

Milo, 272. 

number of cuttings, 268. 

Orange, 270, 

pasture value, 276, 

Planter, 270. 

poisoning, 276, 

Red Amber, 270. 

root system, 263, 

seed, 269, 

seeding in rows, 267. 

soilage, 274. 

Sudan Durra, 272. 



INDEX 



615 



Sorghum, — Continued. 

Sumac, 271. 

time of sowing, 267. 

utilization, 274. 

yield of forage, 269. 
Sour clover, 425. 
Source of seed, 73. 
Soybeans, 513-538. 

agricultural history, 513. 

botany, 514. 

breeding, 536. 

climatic adaptations, 517. 

compared with cowpeas, 536. 

cultivation, 521. 

cutting, time of, 527. 

depth of seeding, 523. 

description, 516. 

desirable characters, 518. 

feeding value, 531. 

fertilizers, 528. 

Guelph, 520. 

Haberlandt, 519. 

Hollybrook, 519. 

importance, 518. 

inoculation, 524. 

Ito San, 520. 

life period, 526. 

Mammoth, 519. 

Medium Yellow, 520. 

methods of seeding, 523. 

mixtures, 529. 

Peking. 521. 

pests, 535. 

pollination, 533. 

rate of seeding, 522. 

rotations, 530. 

seeding, 522, 523. 

seed production, 531. 

seeds, 534. 

silage, 530. 

soil adaptations, 517. 

soil preparation, 521. 

time of seeding, 522. 

varieties, 519. 

Wilson, 521. 

yields, of hay, 528. 

yields, of seed, 533. 
Spergula arvensis, 576. 

maxima, 577. 



sativa, 576. 
Sphacelotheca reiliana, 277. 

sorghi, 277. 
Sphaerotheca sp., 511. 
Spontaneous combustion, 36. 
Spurrey, 576. 
Square-pod pea, 489. 
Standards of germination, 70. 

of purity, 70. 
Starch values, 64. 
Statistical classification of forage 

crops, 113-117. 
Statistics, 113-122. 

alfalfa, 118. 

coarse forage, 118. 

corn, 118. 

cowpeas, 493. 

forage crops, 8. 

forage crops in Canada, 120-121. 

forage crops in United States, 
117-120. 

grains cut green, 118. 

hay yields, 37. 

millet, 118-119. 

other tame and cultivated 
grasses, 119, 120. 

pastures, 102. 

peas, 443. 

red clover, 391, 400. 

root forage, 120. 

seed production, 83. 

sorghum, 266. 

timothy, 124, 125. 

timothy and clover, 117. 

wild, salt or prairie grasses, 118. 
Stizolobium deeringianum, 544. 

hassjoo, 546. 

niveum, 545. 
Stover, definition, 2. 
Straw, definition, 3. 
Sudan-grass, 279-284. 

adaptations, 280. 

cheinical analysis, 282. 

culture, 280. 

description, 279. 

hay, 281. 

mixtures, 282. 

seed production, 283. 

utilization, 281. 



616 



INDEX 



Sugar-cane, Japanese, 247-249. 

Zwinga, 247. 
Sulla, 562. 
Sunflower, 574. 
Sweet clover, 417-425. 

adaptations, 418. 

advantages and disadvantages, 
422. 

agricultural history, 419. 

botany, 417. 

description, 417. 

proportion of roots to tops, 421. 

related species, 424-425. 

securing a stand, 419. 

seed, 424. 

seeding, 419. 

seed-production, 423. 

utilization, 421. 

yield, 422. 
Sweet melilot, 417. 
Sweet vernal-grass, 229. 

botany, 229. 

culture, 230. 
Sword bean, 550. 
Symphytum asperrimum, 580. 

Tall fescue, 210. 

Tall meadow oat-grass, 189. 

Tall-oat grass, 189-195. 

Tangier pea, 482-484. 

Tares, 457. 

temporary pasture crop systems, 

109-111. 
temporary pastures, 109. 
Teosinte, 303. 
Texas blue-grass, 166-167. 
Texas millet, 297. 
therms, 62. 

Thousand-headed kale, 592. 
Tick bean, 479. 
time of seeding, 86. 

alfalfa, 328. 

common vetch, 460. 

cowpeas, 499. 

crimson clover, 430. 

hairy vetch, 460. 

red clover, 369. 

sorghum, 276. 

soybeans, 522. 



Timothy, 122-153. 

advantage of, 126. 

agricultural history, 123. 

agricultural importance, 124. 

botany, 122. 

breeding of, 149-150. 

chemical analyses, 58-59. 

climatic adaptations, 125. 

comparison of vegetative and 
seed progeny, 152. 

depth of seeding, 130. 

desirable types of, 151. 

disease resistance, 148. 

diseases affecting, 146. 

feeding value, 144. 

fertilizers, 133. 

heavy vs. light seeds, 129. 

improved strains, 153. 

in rotation, 127. 

insects injurious to, 146. 

irrigation, 134. 

life history, 141. 

life period, 142. 

lime, efTect of, 134. 

method of seeding, 130. 

mixtures, 94, 95. 

pasture value, 139. 

pollination, 140. 

proportion of roots to tops, 143. 

rate of seeding, 129. 

regional strains, 143. 

roots, depth of, 142. 

seed, 127. 

seed-bed, 128, 132. 

seed-production, 140. 

soil adaptations, 126. 

soil preparation, 128, 132. 

time to cut, 136. 

variability of, 147. 

weight of seeds, 129. 

yield of hay, 138. 
topinambur, 595. 
Trefoil, bird's-foot, 568. 

white, 411. 

yellow, 435. 
Tricholsena rosea, 258. 
Trif olium* alexandrinum, 434. 

elegans, 406. 

fistulosum, 405, 



INDEX 



617 



Trifolium, — Continued. 

hybridum, 405. 

incarnatum, 426. 

pannonicum, 410. 

repens, 411. 

suaveolens, 434. 
Trisetum flavescens, 234. 
Tufted vetch, 481. 
Tunis-grass, 260, 263. 

Ulex europseus, 570. 
Upright brome, 233. 
Urd, 552. 
Uromyces phaseoli, 511. 

striatus, 358, 398. 
Urophlyctis alfalfse, 356. 
Ustilago crameri, 294. 

Velvet bean, Florida, 544. 

description, 544. 

history, 544. 

utihzation, 544. 
Velvet grass, 232. 
Vernal grass, sweet, 229. 
Vetch, bird, 481. 

Bitter, 478. 

Black bitter, 478. 

ChickHng, 454. 

Common, 457. 

comparison of species, 485. 

Dakota. 439. 

English, 457. 

Gray, 459. 

Hairy, 467. 

Kidney, 566. 

Narbonne, 479. 

Narrow-leaved, 477. 

Oregon, 457. 

Pearl, 458. 

Purple, 477. 

Russian, 467. 

Sand, 467. 

Sardinian, 459. 

Scarlet, 478. 

Siberian, 467. 

Smooth, 457. 

Tufted, 481. 

Villose, 467. 



White-seeded, 458. 

Winter, 467. 

W^oolly-pod, 478. 
Vetchling, 454. 

flat-podded, 484. 
Viabihty of seed, 68. 
Vicia angustifolia, 477. 

atropurpurea, 477. 

cracca, 481. 

dasycarpa, 478. 

ervilia, 478. 

faba, 479. 

fulgens, 478. 

hirsuta, 481. 

narbonnensis, 479. 

sativa, 457. 

tetrasperma, 481. 

villosa, 467. 
Vigna sinensis, 491. 

Wall-barley, 354. 

Water-grass, 251. 

Weed seeds, 78. 

Weeds, in alfalfa, 78, 352-354. 

in clover, 78. 

in crimson clover, 434. 

in Kentucky blue-grass, 163. 

in Lespedeza, 78. 

in orchard-grass, 183, 

most dangerous, 78. 
Weevil, cowpea, 511. 
Weight, relation of green to dry, 32. 

of seeds, 78. 
Western wheat-grass, 221. 
Wheat-grass, slender, 219. 

western, 221. 
White clover, 411-417. 

adaptations, 412. 

agricultural history, 412. 

botany, 411. 

description, 411. 

importance, 413. 

Ladino, 416. 

pollination, 415. 

seed, 416. 

seeding, 413. 

seed production, 415. 

yields, 414. 
White melilot, 417. 



618 



INDEX 



White trefoil, 411. 
Wilt, cowpea, 511. 
Windsor bean, 479. 
Wire-grass, 237. 
Wonder bean, 550. 
Wood meadow-grass, 170. 
Woolly pyrol, 552. 

Yarrow, 577. 
Yellow oat-grass, 234. 
Yellow trefoil, 435. 
Yielding capacity, 49. 
Yields of hay, alfalfa, 94, 118, 119, 
319, 339. 

alsike clover, 119, 408. 

Bernnuda-grass, 119, 242. 

Canada blue-grass, 165. 

common vetch, 462. 

cowpeas, 119, 502. 

crab-grass, 119. 

crimson clover, 432. 

fowl meadow-grass, 168. 

hairy vetch, 472. 

Italian rye-grass, 217. 

Japanese cane, 249. 

Johnson-grass, 119. 

Kentucky blue-grass, 119, 160. 

kidney vetch, 567. 

kudzu, 564. 

Ladino white clover, 417. 

Lespedeza, 543. 

millets, 118, 119, 295. 

moth bean, 553. 

orchard-grass, 119, 182. 

pastures, 104. 

peas, 119, 447. 

perennial rye-grass, 213. 

prairie-grass, 118. 



red clover, 94, 119, 382-383. 

redtop, 94, 174. 

sainfoin, 562. 

salt-grass, 118. 

sorghum, 269. 

soybeans, 528. 

spurrey, 577. 

sweet clover, 422. 

tall oat-grass, 94. 

timothy, 94, 119, 138. 

under irrigation, 52. 

white clover, 415. 

wild grass, 118, 119. 
Yields of seed, alfalfa, 347. 

alsike clover, 409. 

Bermuda-grass, 243. 

Canada blue-grass, 165. 

common vetch, 466. 

cowpeas, 507. 

crimson clover, 433. 

guar, 557. 

hairy vetch, 475, 476. 

jack beans, 550. 

kidney vetch, 567. 

Lespedeza, 544. 

millet, 293. 

peas, 450. 

red clover, 391. 

sorghum, 273. 

soybeans, 533. 

spurrey, 577. 

Sudan grass, 283. 

sweet clover, 423. 

yellow trefoil, 437. 
Yokohama bean, 546, 
Yorkshire fog, 232. 

Zwinga sugar cane, 247, 



'T^HE following pages contain advertisements of a 
few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects. 



The Corn Crops 



By E. G. MONTGOMERY 

(Rural Text-book Series) 

Cloth, 347 pages, index, ill., i2mo, $i.6o net 

A valuable handbook on maize, kafirs and sorghum crops, includ- 
ing the grain sorghums, the sweet sorghums for syrup or forage and 
the broom corns. Adapted to both elementary and advanced 
classes of readers, as the theoretical principles of physiology, of pro- 
duction as related to climate and soils, and of the adaptation of the 
plant to the environment are separated from the practical treatment 
of cultural methods. These methods of cultivation may, therefore, 
be understood by the beginning student in school or college and by 
the busy farmer, without a previous study of the theoretical portions 
of the book. 



Southern Field Crops 

By Professor J. F. DUGGAR 

Illustrated, cloth, i2mo, $1.75 net 

This work has been prepared with special reference to the needs 
of high schools and colleges of the Southern States. In a system- 
atic, yet simple manner it discusses each of the important field crops 
of the South. 

Cotton and corn receive most extended treatment. Briefer space 
is devoted to oats, wheat, rice, the sorghums, sweet potatoes, cas- 
sava, peanuts, sugar cane and tobacco. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



Manures and Fertilizers 



By H. J. WHEELER, Ph.D., D.Sc. 

Formerly Director of the Rhode Island Experiment Station 
(Rural Text-book Series) 

Illustrated. Cloth, i2mo, $i.6o net 

The clear and unusually full discussion of the practical utilization of 
manures and fertilizers of all kinds, and of their relations to the plant and 
to the soil, makes this book not only an excellent text for college students, 
but also one which will be generally welcomed by all up-to-date agricul- 
turists. All the animal manures, litter and waste nitrogenous materials 
of every sort are discussed. A helpful feature for the student is the 
extended treatment of the availability of organic nitrogen and of the or- 
ganisms contained in barnyard manure which give rise to the various fer- 
mentations taking place therein. The well-known and also the new, 
nitrogenous manures, such as calcium cyanamid and calcium nitrate, are 
considered in detail. The chapters devoted to the potash salts, phos- 
phates, lime, magnesia, soda, gypsum, iron and manganese are excep- 
tionally complete, and chlorin, sulfur, silica, carbon disulfid, toluene and 
other substances exerting catalytic and other effects are described. Much 
of the material in this book, which will be new to students and other 
readers, has suggested itself to the author in the course of twenty-two 
years of continuous research. 



Farm Management 



By G. F. warren 

(Rural Text-book Series) 

Illustrated. i2mo, $1.75 net 

This book teaches the necessity of efficient farm organization and 
management so as to secure the farmer the best crops at the lowest price. 
Professor Warren shows the way to such efficiency and thoroughly dis- 
cusses the more important phases of farm management from the selection 
and purchase of the farm to the marketing of its products. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



Principles of Soil Management 

By Dr. T. L. LYON and Professor E. O. PIPPIN 

(Rural Text-book Series) 

Cloth, III., i2mo, $1.75 net 

The volume is a complete and comprehensive study of everything relat- 
ing to soils and sc^il management. The material is arranged under three 
general heads of (i) the soil as a medium for root development, (2) the 
soil as a reservoir for water and (3) plant nutrients of the soil. 

"As a book indispensable to the teacher of agriculture, the intelligent 
farmer and student of farming, this is recommended." — School Journal. 

"... explicit and clear, and will undoubtedly prove a valuable refer- 
ence book for all students of soils." — Iiidiistrialist. 

" Complicated questions of farm management and conservation of lands 
are described with care, but, at the same time, with a lucidity which will 
gain for the book an entrance into homes of many practical farmers." — 
Philadelphia North American. 

" An exhaustive and carefully prepared volume." — Stibiirhan Life. 

" It is one of the best l)ooks yet produced for college work on the study 
of soils." — School Review. 

Plant Physiology with special reference to 
Plant Production 

By Dr. B. M. DUGGAR 

///., dec. cloth, i2mo, $1.60 net 

In this book the author discusses the life relations of plants and crops 
from a fundamental point of view. The important physiological activities 
of the plan are demonstrated experimentally, and the practices of the 
crop-grower are reviewed from this standpoint. Some of the special 
topics that are considered are as follows : The relation of the plant and 
the crop to water; the relation to soil nutrients, stimulants and inhibiting 
agents; the relation to light and air; the relation to heat and cold; the 
relation to the disease environment. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 









LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




OODSTbSa^t.^ 



